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Sunday, October 4, 2020

ARP169 Articles of Confederation

We last checked in with the Continental Congress in Episode 141, as the delegates held a session in Philadelphia. They had returned to Philadelphia from Baltimore in March 1777, having fled the prior December when they feared the British might invade Philadelphia from New Jersey. When that fear passed, they returned.

Then in September 1777, the British army once again threatened Philadelphia, this time marching up from Maryland. The delegates left town as the Continentals under George Washington attempted in vain to halt the British advance.

Lancaster

The delegates had adjourned in Philadelphia on September 18th, with plans to meet in Lancaster. They could not simply move straight from Philadelphia to Lancaster, as they would be passing over the same ground where the two armies under Washington and Howe were doing battle. Instead, the members took a circuitous route, first, travelling up to Trenton, New Jersey, then over to Easton Pennsylvania. From there, they moved west to Bethlehem. They remained in Bethlehem for a few days, where many soldiers from Brandywine and other area battles were still recovering. There were also Hessian prisoners of war there, who needed to be moved south to prevent the enemy from liberating them. After a few days, the delegates made their way west to Lancaster.

Lancaster Courthouse hosted Congress for one day
(from Explore Pa History)

On September 27, the day after the British Army marched into Philadelphia, the delegates met at the Lancaster courthouse to open a new session. They read a few letters from various generals, including one from the 15th from General Horatio Gates at Bemis Heights, getting ready for the big showdown with Burgoyne’s army. Gates had not yet fought the battle of Freeman's Farm, but was optimistic about his chances of victory. Congress read another from General Washington from the 23rd. At the time he wrote it, Washington still hoped to block the British army and begged for more supplies.

Lancaster was about sixty miles from Philadelphia, probably at least two day’s march for the British Army. However, the delegates decided it was not quite far enough. After tending to a little more business in that one-day session, Congress adjourned. It ended the one day session in Lancaster with a resolution to meet three days later in the town of York, Pennsylvania. The new location would be twenty miles further from Philadelphia. It would also be across the Susquehanna River, placing another natural barrier between Congress and the British Army in Philadelphia.

Another reason for the move was that the Pennsylvania legislature was also meeting in Lancaster. The combination of the two legislative bodies was probably more than the small town could handle. Thus Lancaster had its one day as the nation’s capital.

York

York would be the seat of Congress for nine months. On the first day in York, President Hancock received more correspondence from General Gates with updates. He forwarded them to General Washington, since Gates was not keeping the commander up to date directly. Hancock added his own note, saying he hoped to receive word from Washington soon that he had totally reduced General Howe’s army.

York Courthouse (rebuilt) where Congress met.

Washington made his attempt on October 4, when he attacked Germantown (see Episode 163). Despite the failure at Germantown, Congress nevertheless congratulated Washington on the attempt and ordered a medal struck in his honor. Despite the congratulations, delegates were not optimistic. John Adams wrote in his diary indicating his desire for a new military leader who could lead America to victory:

Heaven grant us one great soul. One leading mind would extricate the best cause from the ruin that seems to await it. We have as good a cause as ever was fought for. One active, masterly capacity would bring order out of this confusion and save our country.

Samuel Adams made a speech to the delegates where he said:

Our affairs are said to be desperate, but we are not without hope and not without courage. The eyes of the people of this country are upon us here, and the tone of their feeling is regulated by ours. If we as delegates in Congress give up in despair, and grow desperate, public confidence will be destroyed and American liberty will be no more.

He ended his speech by seeking hope from God to save the cause:

There have been times since the opening of this war when we were reduced almost to distress, but the great arm of Omnipotence has raised us up. Let us still rely for assistance upon Him who is mighty to save. We shall not be abandoned by the Powers above so long as we act worthy of aid and protection. The darkest hour is just before the dawn. Good news may soon reach us from the army and from across the sea.

Laurens Replaces Hancock

About this time many members of Congress either took temporary leave or permanently left Congress to attend to other business Among them was the President of Congress, John Hancock, who stepped down in October. He wanted to return to Boston and attend to business. He gave a simple farewell speech and a delegate moved to thank Hancock for his nearly two and a half years of service.

You would think a motion just saying thank you to a retiring officer would be pretty non-controversial, but it wasn’t. Members objected and the motion barely passed by a vote of six states to four. Among those opposed was Hancock’s own Massachusetts. Opponents argued it was improper to thank any delegate for simply discharging the duties of his office.

Henry Laurens

Many of the delegates had grown to dislike Hancock, not the least of whom were Samuel and John Adams, who had worked with Hancock for decades. They considered Hancock vain and disliked his efforts to help friends secure political office. When a delegate asked Samuel Adams if he could forgive Hancock, he said, he would both forgive him and forget him.

For the new President, Congress chose Henry Laurens of South Carolina. Laurens came from a wealthy family of rice farmers, but had made a fortune as a partner in one of the largest slave-trading companies in North America. He had served as a lieutenant colonel in the militia during the French and Indian War where he led several campaigns against the Cherokee in the carolinas.

In the years leading up to the revolution, Laurens served in the colonial assembly, where he was considered a moderate in the political arguments with Parliament and led efforts to broker a political compromise. However, as South Carolina got further radicalized, so did Laurens. He served in the Provincial Congress in 1775 and became the state’s first vice president in 1776. He had come to the Continental Congress as a delegate only a few months prior to his election as the body’s new presiding officer.

His son, John Laurens, had been studying law in London before the war. He returned to America over his father’s objections and took a commission in the Continental Army. To keep him out of direct combat, Henry got his son a position as an aide to General George Washington. This direct connection between Washington’s inner circle and the President of Congress would prove crucial in the coming months.

Word of Saratoga

Just before Hancock resigned, Congress received unofficial word of a victory by Gates over Burgoyne in New York. For several weeks though, these were just rumors. Gates had won the Battle of Bemis Height on October 7, and then accepted Burgoyne’s formal surrender on October 17. Both General Washington and General Putnam forwarded to Congress news of the victory which arrived on October 21. Neither Washington nor Putnam had received official word directly from anyone in the army, but had heard the news from New York Governor George Clinton.

James Wilkinson
(from Wikimedia)

General Gates sent word to Congress via his messenger Colonel James Wilkinson. Traditionally a commander would send a messenger of a great victory with the expectation that Congress would award the messenger with a promotion, in this case to general. Wilkinson, however, did not seem in any hurry to get to Congress. He left Albany on October 20th. He made his way to Easton, Pennsylvania four days later, where he dined with local officials. He managed to get to Reading by the 27th, where he dined with Lord Stirling, still recovering from wounds received at Brandywine. Also present was a young Major James Monroe, still recovering from his wounds at Trenton. At that dinner, Wilkinson drank a little too much and began discussing possibilities of replacing Washington with Gates as commander of the Continental Army. It took him another four days to make the fifty mile trip to York where he finally arrived on October 31.

Although he had stopped to meet with a number of other officers, he did not bother to stop and provide General Washington with the news, nor did Gates make any effort to transmit the information to his commander at any time. Washington finally received definitive notice from Congress, not from Gates.

While Congress was happy to receive confirmation of the great victory, they were not happy with how long it took Wilkinson to arrive. By the time of his arrival, Hancock had resigned, but Laurens had not yet been elected. Wilkinson gave his message to Secretary Charles Thompson, who was presiding in the interim. A few days later, after Laurens’ election, Congress voted to give Wilkinson a ceremonial sword. Several delegates remarked that perhaps ceremonial spurs or a whip might be better to assist the young man in traveling a little faster. It also voted to give Wilkinson a brevet promotion to brigadier general.

Congress also was not happy with the terms of surrender that Gates had given to Burgoyne’s army. The decision to allow them to return to England seemed to undercut the value of capturing the army in the first place. Whatever, their concerns, publicly Congress voted on November 4 to thank General Gates for his great victory. It also voted to set December 18 as a national day of thanksgiving to God for allowing such a great victory.

Duché Letter

Much of Congress’ daily work involved correspondence. Congress regularly received letters from all sorts of people. Many came from generals, state politicians and other notable men. Typically, such letters would be read aloud and acted upon by the entire body, or sent to a committee for further consideration.

Jacob Duché (from Wikimedia)

In mid-October, General Washington forwarded a letter from the Reverend Jacob Duché in Philadelphia. Duché had served as a minister to the First Continental Congress and was considered a patriot. He had remained in Philadelphia when the British army occupied the city. There, he was arrested on charges of treason against the King.

A few days later, Duché sent a letter to General Washington, essentially saying that he never really supported independence and that the rebellion was pretty much lost at this point. He called on Washington to renounce independence, seek a negotiated peace, accept pardons from General Howe, and return royal authority to America.

Washington often forwarded letters to Congress without comment. In this case, however, made clear that he thought the author’s comments were "curious," "extraordinary," and "ridiculous." Even so, it was Congress’ place to respond to any political proposal, not the place of a military commander. Congress read the letter, but did not act. The letter eventually reached state officials who charged Duché with treason against the state of Pennsylvania and confiscated all of his lands. Duché would be forced to leave Philadelphia with the British, and would be exiled from his home state. Such defeatism would not be tolerated.

Articles of Confederation

Within a few days of opening the York session, even with all the other things happening, the Congress resumed its debate on the Articles of Confederation. Since just after passage of the Declaration of Independence, more than a year earlier, Congress had debated the Articles two or three days each week. After getting started in York, the delegates made a final push, spending some time each day to finalize an agreement on the articles.

Debate remained contentious. One of the biggest issues was over representation. Should each state be represented equally? should it be based on population? or should it be based on the wealth of each state and how much money each contributed to Congress?

Other contentious issues over the next few weeks included the power to tax, the authority to settle state boundaries, and the length of terms for delegates.

Finally, on November 15, Congress agreed to the final wording of the Articles of Confederation. They sent the document to the printers so that they could send them to the states for ratification.

Articles of Confederation (from Const. Amer.)

The articles were the product of considerable debate and disagreement. The delegates, however, reached a compromise in the interest of having some sort of governing document. The loss of Philadelphia seemed to focus the debate. Some were doubting whether Congress could remain a body at all. Many of its most prominent delegates had left for positions within their states or abroad. Without some agreed document establishing Congress’ legitimacy, it could possibly just fade away.

The final document recognized the independence and sovereignty of each individual state. It recognized that each state retained all of its general sovereign authority except for a few explicitly defined powers that were granted to Congress.

Many of the provisions simply defined the mechanics of how Congress would operate, or was already operating. Delegates would be selected by states for one-year terms beginning each November. Delegations could be between two and seven members, whatever the state wanted, and within those limits could change the delegation at any time. States also had the authority to recall a delegate at any time. Regardless of how many delegates a state sent, each state got one vote in Congress. Delegations would hold their own votes to decide how the state would vote on any issue. Each Congress would select a president for a one-year term. No person could hold that office for more than one out of every three years.

States would work together for mutual defense. Congress retained for itself the power to declare war or peace. No state could go to war against another country unless actually invaded. During war, states could commission officers below the rank of colonel. Congress would commission colonels and generals. States could not keep their own navies in time of peace, unless authorized by Congress. Congress would retain sole authority to run prize courts for ships or other property captured by privateers.

Costs of prosecuting the war would be incurred by Congress, who would collect shares of the costs from each state based on the total value of property in that state. State governments would be responsible for actually collecting the taxes however they liked and sending the money to Congress.

The document further stated that Congress held the authority to maintain diplomatic relations with other countries. States could not send their own ambassadors or open embassies in other countries. Congress retained the exclusive right to enter into treaties, including commercial treaties with other countries.

States could not form treaties with each other. All relations between states would be through the Congress. States could not impose taxes on foreigners that differed from those of their own citizens, nor could they create import or export restrictions on goods.

States agreed to give full faith and credit to each other’s laws and court decisions. If a criminal fled from one state to another, a state would have to return the fugitive for trial or punishment in the state that retained jurisdiction for the crime. Free citizens would have all the privileges and immunities of citizenship in each state, and may travel freely between states, except of course for slaves, paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives.

Congress retained the power to set standards for coins and currency. It would be the final arbiter of any state boundary disputes.

Any decisions by Congress to enter a treaty, borrow money, authorize expenditures, increase the size of the military, engage in an act of war, or even appoint a commander of the army or navy, would require a vote of nine states. In other words it would require a two-thirds majority if all thirteen states voted. The Articles authorized Canada to join the union if it desired. Any other state wishing to join the Union would also require the approval of at least nine states.

Approval of the articles would require the ratification by all thirteen states before it could go into effect. Any future amendments to the Articles would also require unanimous approval by all the states, as well as the approval of Congress itself.

Ratification

Congress submitted the Articles to the states for ratification. Just as debate had been contentious within Congress, so it was in the state legislatures. One of the biggest sticking points for many state leaders was the authority given to Congress to set state boundaries.

Articles, printed (from Northwestern)

Many states had claims on land stretching all the way to the Pacific Ocean. Some also had boundary disputes with neighboring states. State leaders had great concerns about letting Congress make decisions about how to resolve them. Congress would likely make new western states out of most of their land, and use land sales to pay off promises to veterans or raise other funds. The value of those western lands were seen as future income for many states. They did not simply want to give that wealth away.

At the same time, many States without western land claims absolutely wanted those lands turned over to Congress. They did not want to be next to huge states that dominated the continent and dwarfed their own limited land claims. These states would not ratify the Articles until the larger states showed a willingness to give up their claims to western lands.

It had taken Congress well over a year to work out the proposed Articles of Confederation. The states would debate ratification for another nearly four years. The last hold out, Maryland, would ratify the Articles in 1781, finally allowing them to take effect.

Until then, Congress would continue to operate under its own ad hoc rules, making up rules as they went along, and hoping the States would comply. Meanwhile, the Congress continued to publish the Articles, even producing a French version to send to Benjamin Franklin in Paris. Delegates hoped it would help convince France to recognize the United States as an independent nation.

In the meantime, the war continued to rage.

Next week, the British under General Howe attack Washington’s Army at Whitemarsh, Pennsylvania.

- - -

Next Episode 170 Whitemarsh

Previous Episode 168 Forts Mercer and Mifflin

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Sunday, September 13, 2020

ARP166 Surrender at Saratoga

Last week, we covered the Battle of Bemis Heights, the final effort by General Burgoyne to push his British force down the Hudson Valley and cut off New England for the rest of the continent.

British Trapped

Instead, Burgoyne found his own army cut off from Canada and unable to reach Albany. Following his defeat on October 7, 1777, Burgoyne’s army moved into a defensive posture. The Americans had remained in the field that night, prepared to resume their attack in the morning. Burgoyne, however, removed his army about a mile north during the night. The British abandoned their field hospital and around 400 wounded to be captured by the enemy. They could not carry the wounded and did not have food for them. The British leadership believed that the wounded would be better off in the care of the Americans as prisoners of war.

Surrender at Saratoga (from Wikimedia)

The Americans woke up to find that the battlefield was theirs. A cold driving October rain drenched everyone as they recovered from the battle. Burgoyne spent that day and the next retreating further north to Saratoga Heights, where his army had built entrenchments as they had advanced weeks earlier. From his entrenchments, Burgoyne desperately awaited word from General Sir Henry Clinton, and clung to the hope of a relief column marching north from New York City.

Benedict Arnold’s leg wound was so bad that surgeons wanted to amputate. Arnold refused to allow it and endured months of suffering as he slowly recovered. At first he moved to Albany where he spent most of the winter. Later, he returned to Connecticut where he would continue his rehabilitation. Without Arnold to urge more offensive action, the victorious General Horatio Gates once again settled into his defense on Bemis Heights.

Benjamin Lincoln

General Benjamin Lincoln raised the concern that Burgoyne and his army might try to escape north and return to Fort Ticonderoga. Gates permitted General Lincoln to lead a group of militia north to hold the ford across the Hudson River near Fort Edward. While Lincoln was moving north on October 8, the day after the battle at Bemis Heights, he rode ahead of his militia, personally scouting the area ahead. While riding through a thick woods, he ran into a group of soldiers who he thought were local militia.

Benjamin Lincoln
(from Mass. Hist. Soc.)

Lincoln rode within a few yards of the group before he realized that they were actually British regulars and some of their German allies. As Lincoln wheeled his horse around to escape, the group fired on him, shattering his leg. The wounded general managed to ride away and return to his own forces.

Lincoln’s wound was rather serious. Like Arnold, the army evacuated him to Albany where surgeons recommended amputation. After three months in Albany, Lincoln was transported to Boston to continue his rehabilitation. There he underwent several more painful surgeries to remove bone fragments from his leg. The injury would keep Lincoln away from active duty for nearly a year, returning to service in August 1778.

Meanwhile, General Gates sent militia under the command of militia Brigadier General John Fellows to take 1300 men northward to contest any British attempt to cross the Hudson River.

Lady Harriet Acland

While the British army retreated, at least one Brit refused. Lady Harriet Acland had been with Burgoyne’s army since it had left Canada. Her husband, Major John Acland had been shot in both legs and taken prisoner. During the British retreat, Lady Acland decided that her place was with her husband. Acland was also pregnant with her second child at the time.

Lady Acland
(from Wikimedia)

In the middle of the night on October 8, in a driving rain, Lady Acland traveled down river to meet up with the Continental Army. Burgoyne provided her with a note and sent her aboard ship under a flag of truce.

Several miles downriver, she came upon sentinels under the command of Colonel Henry Dearborn. By this time, it was after 1:00 AM. Dearborn convinced the young woman to spend the rest of the night in a small house he had commandeered as his headquarters. Dearborn assured Lady Acland that it was too dangerous to travel at night and that he had met with Major Acland and that his injuries were not immediately life threatening.

The next day, Gates’ aide, accompanied Lady Acland, along with her maid and Major Acland’s valet, back to headquarters. There she met with General Gates. The American commander acceded to her request to be reunited with her husband. She would help nurse her husband back to health while he remained an American prisoner.

Gates Advances

Two days after the battle, on October 9, General Gates learned that the British under Henry Clinton had taken fort Montgomery. Gates now feared a possible relief force was on the way to rescue Burgoyne. He advanced north to confront Burgoyne’s army before any possible relief force could arrive. The Americans kept the British pinned down on Saratoga Heights for several days. Morgan’s riflemen picked off any British soldier who dared raise his head out of the entrenchments.

Gen. Horatio Gates
(from Wikimedia)

On October 11, Gates received word that Burgoyne’s army had crossed the Hudson and had retreated back to Fort Edward. Gates now believed he was only facing a small rear guard on Saratoga Heights. With this information, Gates deployed much of his army under General Nixon and General Glover, along with Morgan’s Riflemen to advance on Saratoga Heights through a dense fog.

The problem was, Gates’ intelligence was wrong. As the army advanced, they came across a British deserter. General Glover personally interrogated the regular, and asked about the forces that had marched to Fort Edward. The deserter informed Glover that a small detachment had attempted to move to Fort Edward, but found all the passes blocked by American defenders. As a result, they had turned back and that the entire army remained at Saratoga Heights.

The deserter could have been giving him misinformation. Glover told the man that if he lied, he would be hanged as a spy. The man stuck to his story. If true, it meant the Americans were marching right into the most heavily defended British lines and could be cut down. In fact the deserter’s story was true, except about being mistaken about why the detachment to fort Edward had returned. It probably could have made it, but General Burgoyne had recalled them. General Glover was able to call off the advance and pull back the continental soldiers before they marched into a death trap.

Instead, the Americans continued to blast away at the British defenses from a distance. The increasingly desperate British soldiers were out of food, lacked access to water, and were almost out of ammunition. Most concerning to some, the army had run out of rum.

Surrender Negotiations

On October 13, General Burgoyne held another council of war to decide on next steps. Even Burgoyne accepted that another attack was impossible. The army’s line of retreat was also now cut off as General Stark had brought his militia army to block any northern passage for the British. Burgoyne proposed dissolving the army and allowing each man to try to make his way through the woods back to Fort Ticonderoga. The other general officers balked at that idea. They then got down to answering some serious questions. Had other armies surrendered in similar situations? Would it be dishonorable to surrender in this situation? Everyone seemed to agree without debate that surrender at this point would be neither unprecedented nor dishonorable. The final question was whether surrender was absolutely necessary. After some debate, the council agreed that it was, if they could obtain reasonable terms from the enemy.

Saratoga Surrender, 1777 by Moran

Burgoyne sent a messenger under a flag of truce to request a discussion with Gates the following morning about ending the hostilities. General Gates already felt assured of final victory. The day before, he had written a letter to Congress informing them of his great victory. He did not bother to write to General Washington, his immediate superior. With this victory, combined with Washington’s loss of Philadelphia, Gates seemed once again focused on his dream of replacing General Washington as commander of the Continental Army.

On October 14, Major Robert Kingston carried General Burgoyne’s terms to the General Gates. Kingston informed Gates that Burgoyne was willing to fight another battle, but was also willing to agree to a cease fire to discuss terms. Gates was having none of it. He knew Burgoyne’s situation was desperate. He announced his terms to the major, which essentially amounted to unconditional surrender. The army would ground their weapons and surrender as prisoners.

When Kingston returned, Burgoyne convened another council at which the British leaders agreed that the terms were ridiculous and that they would rather fight to the death than accept them. After they calmed down, Burgoyne sent another counter-proposal. The British would march out of camp, ground their arms, and march to Boston. They would be permitted to retain their baggage and officers would retain their swords. From there, they would be allowed to embark for England, on the condition that no officer or soldier would again return to fight in North America for the remainder of the war.

Burgoyne may have liked this terms, but this was unquestionably a bad deal for the Americans. The British army had lots of soldiers all over the world. Burgoyne was simply suggesting that his army would be deployed somewhere else, thus freeing up other soldiers to return to America and continue the fight.

Amazingly though, Gates accepted the proposal, only requiring that it be completed by 2:00 PM that day. This acceptance then made Burgoyne suspicious. Why did Gates go from demanding unconditional surrender to agreeing to all of Burgoyne’s terms as long as it got done quickly? Burgoyne suspected that Gates had received word of a Clinton relief force and that he wanted to finalize the surrender before it arrived.

British Camp at Saratoga (from British Battles)

Burgoyne, in fact, was right. Gates had received word that a fleet was moving up the Hudson River. He feared that a relief force was on its way. These were the soldiers under General John Vaughan that Clinton had deployed upriver after the capture of Fort Montgomery. The intelligence Gates received was sketchy. He feared that the relief force was much larger than it was and that it might pose some real threat, which it did not. Clinton meant the offensive to be a distraction and it almost worked.

Burgoyne, however, did not take advantage of the moment and finalize the generous terms. Instead, he asked for a postponement, which Gates granted. As a delay tactic, Burgoyne proposed that each commander send two officers to negotiate the details of the surrender.

On October 15, Continental Colonel James Wilkinson and militia brigadier general William Whipple met with British Lieutenant Colonel Nicholas Sutherland and Captain James Craig to work out a final written agreement, which both commanders would review. That evening, the British said they would agree to everything except one word. Rather than call it a “treaty of capitulation” they wanted to call it a “treaty of convention.” Not getting hung up on that one word, General Gates agreed.

That same night, a loyalist entered the British camp with a rumor that the British had captured Albany and that part of Gates’ army had moved south to engage. Once again, General Burgoyne gathered his top officers to decide whether they should break the agreement and fight on. The majority voted that even if true, they had already agreed to terms and that it would be dishonorable to go back on that agreement.

Burgoyne, however, was not convinced. He knew that he could not mount an attack or pull off a retreat, but his army could defend its entrenchments long enough for a relief force from Albany to arrive. The next day, Burgoyne sent a letter to Gates saying that he had received intelligence that much of the American army had been detached and that their agreement had been based on the numerical superiority of that army. Burgoyne insisted that Gates allow the British to see if the army was as large as Gates claimed.

By the time Gates received Burgoyne's latest communication, he was assured that there was no real threat from the south and had reason enough to back out of the agreement. Instead, he sent a note back to Burgoyne saying that there would be no more discussions. Burgoyne could agree or not within the next hour.

Burgoyne called another council of war at which all of his officers objected to pulling out of the agreement. Even if Clinton had taken Albany, and there was still no evidence that he had, there was no way for the army to hold out for as long as it would take Clinton to fight his way to Saratoga. Only Burgoyne himself seemed reluctant to end these negotiations.

Out of patience, General Gates sent word that his messenger should return with the signed convention, or he would launch his attack. The messenger returned with the convention, containing Burgoyne’s signature.

Raid on Kingston

That same day, October 16, British General John Vaughan was doing his very best with his limited resources to help Burgoyne. Vaughan had taken 1700 soldiers up the Hudson River, as far as Kingston, NY. This was more than 100 miles up the Hudson River from New York City, but still more than 50 miles south of Albany.

Livingston's Mansion, Clermont, burned
(from Friends of Clermont)

Vaughan had hoped to provide a distraction with his small force, which he did. The town of Kingston had served as the patriot capital of New York. Earlier that year, the first patriot state legislature had begun meeting there. Governor George Clinton had taken his oath in Kingston to become the first patriot governor of New York.

As Vaughan’s fleet approached, legislators fled. Governor Clinton attempted to march a militia force of 1000 men to Kingston to confront the British. But as the fleet approached there was only a handful of local militia, who fled after a brief firefight. Vaughan landed his force and marched up the hill to the town. There, he heard a rumor that Burgoyne’s army had already surrendered, but had no way to verify it. Moving forward, he ordered all the buildings put to the torch, burning the homes of over 4000 people. The attack took about three hours.

After that, the fleet continued north to the home of Robert Livingston, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and at that time chancellor of the patriot government of New York. The British burned his mansion and all other neighboring buildings around the estate.

Vaughn’s force remained in the area for about a week. He did not try to advance any further upriver to Albany. After receiving confirmation of Burgoyne’s surrender, he sailed his fleet down river to New York City again. His only stop was to burn Forts Clinton and Montgomery, which his army had captured earlier.

Burgoyne Surrenders

On October 17, the British and German forces at Saratoga Heights, marched out of their camp, grounded their weapons and prepared to be marched as prisoners to Boston. The Brunswickers gave their regimental flags to the Baroness Von Riedesel. She sewed them into a pillow and eventually smuggled them back to Brunswick.

General Burgoyne changed into his dress uniform, which he had planned to wear on his entrance into Albany. He and Major General Riedesel and Philips along with others, rode out to meet with General Gates. Burgoyne and Gates had known each other since they were both lieutenants in the same British regiment thirty years earlier. Gates greeted his old comrade saying “it’s good to see you.” Burgoyne responded that it was not so good to see him and offered his sword in surrender. Gates took the sword, but then returned it and invited the enemy officers to a banquet.

Although Gates had promised that the army would be marched to Boston and then sent back to England. That, however, was not in the cards. At first, General Glover marched the convention army, as it came to be called, to Cambridge, just outside Boston. It remained there for nearly a year. During that time about 1300 prisoners escaped and established new lives in America.

Encampment of Convention Army
(from Wikimedia)

The Continental Congress and General Washington did not like the terms of the Convention, and found excuses not to fulfill its terms. Congress instructed General Burgoyne to provide them with a list of all officers in order to ensure that none of them ever returned to North America. When Burgoyne did not provide the list, Congress used that as an excuse to hold the army. Later, Congress voted to hold the army until King George III directly ratified the convention, which was unlikely since it would recognize the independent authority of Congress.

After a year in Cambridge, the Continentals marched the prisoners to Charlottesville, Virginia, which gave another 600 prisoners the opportunity to escape and begin new lives in America. They remained there until 1780 when the war moved to Virginia and the prisoners were taken to a more secure location in Frederick, Maryland.

As was typical, officers were given parole and could live in whatever accommodations they like. Soldiers were kept in miserable poorly constructed barracks and held until the end of the war in 1783. Those who had not escaped or died finally returned to England.

Almost immediately after the surrender, Burgoyne began writing a series of letters back to London, blaming his loss on the strict instructions had been given and the lack of any support from the main army in New York City. He became the guest of General Phillip Schuyler, who had returned to the army for the surrender, even though he no longer held a command position.

Schuyler might have been able to offer Burgoyne accommodations in his luxurious upstate mansion, but for the fact that Burgoyne had ordered it burned to the ground a few weeks earlier. Instead, the Schuylers and their new guests took up accommodations in another country manner. As a prisoner, Burgoyne actually apologized for burning Schuyler’s home, but Schuyler dismissed it as “fortunes of war”. Burgoyne would then travel to Cambridge, and after a few months received parole to return to England and begin his political battles over the blame for the loss.

Schuyler also took in the Baroness Von Riedesel and her two daughters. General Riedesel approved of this knowing that a gentleman would take proper care of his family. Both would leave after a few days and travel to Cambridge to be with the army. The Baroness spent the rest of the war with her husband as a prisoner on parole with the Convention Army.

After Burgoyne returned home, General William Phillips became the ranking officer in the Convention Army. Remained with the army, and along with the Riedesels, became a popular guest in Virginia in elite social circles. He would be exchanged in 1780 and returned to duty. We will see him again in future episodes.

The victorious General Gates became the toast of America. Gates, as I said, seemed to want to replace Washington as commander, and resumed his efforts to snub Washington and criticize his leadership. This would also create problems that will be the subject of future episodes. But for now, he was the conquering hero who had defeated the British Army.

The victory at Saratoga was a major turning point of the war, for many reasons, not the least of which was its effect on France’s decision to join the war a few months later.

The war further south around Philadelphia, however, pressed on.

Next week: General Howe seeks to clear the Delaware River and open up Philadelphia for the Royal Navy.

- - -

Next Episode 167 Defending the Delaware

Previous Episode 165 Bemis Heights (2nd Saratoga)

Contact me via email at mtroy.history@gmail.com

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First Do No Harm,

by K. S. Avard (Releases Sept. 25, 2020).

In 17th Century Vienna, a local watchman discovers a dead body outside of Stephansdom Cathedral. He soon realizes that the black plague is sweeping across the city. He must determine: Is there a medical cure that will stop this illness from devastating the population? or is the plague the result of other-worldly beings bringing God’s wrath to a sinful people?

Author Kurt Avard takes readers on a journey through a society still emerging from medieval Europe to embrace enlightenment. The struggle between religion and science breaks into open warfare as a determined group searches for a way to end this terrible suffering. “First, Do no Harm” releases on September 25, 2020. Pre-order your book on Amazon today.

Sunday, August 9, 2020

ARP161 Freeman’s Farm (1st Saratoga)

Last week, we ended a series of episodes as General Howe made his long slow sailing voyage from New York to Maryland, then marched his army up to capture Philadelphia.

Burgoyne Trudges South

While all that was happening, General Burgoyne was marching his northern army from Canada down through upstate New York, with the hope of taking Albany, and eventually linking up with British forces in New York City. We last left General Burgoyne in Episode 155 as his army suffered a loss at Bennington, in an attempt to capture food and supplies.

Despite that loss, Burgoyne’s main army had reached the Hudson River and planned to march downstream to Albany. His hope to recruit an army of Tories in upstate New York had proven to be a joke. Almost all of his loyalist soldiers were men who had already fled New York to Canada and had joined at the outset of the expedition. Promises of locals in New York who would flock to the King’s banner, had proven empty.

Freeman's Farm (from British Battles)

Burgoyne found his supply lines from Canada too long and attenuated to do much good. He was frustrated that no British relief force seemed to be on its way from New York City. After receiving word that General St. Leger’s force had given up on capturing Fort Stanwix and was returning to Canada, Burgoyne lost his only other prospect of reinforcements. Burgoyne’s situation was becoming more threatened each day. His army was shrinking, while his opponents were growing. His men were isolated and largely cut off from additional food and supplies. At the outset of this campaign, Burgoyne had hoped for more soldiers, better support from Canada, and most importantly a British army marching northward from New York City.

In letters back to London, Burgoyne discussed the option of pulling back to Fort Edward, reestablishing supply lines with Canada and awaiting more reinforcements. But getting bogged down and refusing to advance was exactly what he had accused his predecessors of doing in order to get this command. Burgoyne believed his orders were to push forward and take Albany. He planned to do just that.

Burgoyne ordered the bulk of his small reserves, still at Fort Ticonderoga, to march south and join up with his main army. He would not rely on maintaining lines back to Canada, but would live off the land. He determined that his army would cross the Hudson River and march down the west bank to Albany. Crossing the Hudson so far upstream would prevent any problems trying to cross closer to Albany where they might have to do it in the face of the enemy. But crossing where they did also made it nearly impossible to retreat back to Ticonderoga if they ran into problems. Burgoyne was committing himself to complete victory or defeat, no option for backing down.

Schuyler Relieved

The Americans, having succeeded in killing or capturing over 1000 of the enemy at Bennington, continued to harass them whenever possible. They drove off cattle and burned fields of grain and orchards. They tore up bridges and felled hundreds of trees across roads, all to slow the British advance and deny them the supplies needed to maintain the army.

British March (from Wikimedia)

If time was on the side of the Contientals, it was not on the side of their commander. Before word of the victory at Bennington or Fort Stanwix reached Congress, the delegates in Philadelphia concluded that the loss of Fort Ticonderoga in July was simply unacceptable. Congress voted for the removal of General Philip Schuyler from command. New England delegates especially had never really liked or trusted the New York general. The loss of Ticonderoga under his command, was the final straw. New Englanders had captured this fort a few years earlier, only to see it turned over to a New York commander. That commander’s loss of the fort was unacceptable. Congress ordered both General Schuyler and General St. Clair to report to Philadelphia for an inquiry into their activities. The order came, despite the fact that both generals were actively engaged in the ongoing campaign to halt General Burgoyne’s army.

At first, Congress wrote to General Washington and asked him to pick a successor to the northern army. Congress’ obvious choice was General Horatio Gates, who Washington, by this time, had great reason to distrust. Washington knew that recommending Gates would be putting someone in charge who he really did not respect. Picking someone else who did not have the experience in New York and at a time when Washington needed those generals to stop General Howe from capturing Philadelphia, would also be a problem. Washington would have preferred to keep Schuyler in command. He could not say that without appearing to thumb his nose at Congress. So, Washington punted. He simply informed Congress that if they were going to replace General Schuyler, that they should name the replacement.

Congress then selected General Gates to assume command. Gates found out about the orders almost immediately. At the time when almost all the officers in the Continental Army were in the field, either opposing Burgoyne’s advance on Albany or Howe’s advance on Philadelphia, Gates was in Philadelphia complaining about their leadership and lobbying for a new job. After learning of his commission and knowing that the situation was desperate, Gates took a leisurely two weeks to travel up to New York and take command on August 19, 1777.

Gen. Horatio Gates
(from Wikimedia)

General Schuyler, who had received his orders to stand down and return to Philadelphia, felt obliged to remain in command until his successor arrived. Schuyler then spent the next few days trying to brief Gates on the status of both his and the enemy forces and the strategies in place, but Gates seemed entirely uninterested in anything Schuyler had to say. Instead, Gates held a large council of war for all Continental offices, as well as Albany militia commanders, but did not invite Schuyler. Taking the hint, Schuyler finally packed up and left for Philadelphia.

Gates also received reinforcements of about 8000 men. These included new recruits from New England, New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. Washington sent some of his own forces, including his highly valued riflemen commanded by Colonel Daniel Morgan. General Benedict Arnold was marching his 1200 Continentals back from their victory at Fort Stanwix. By early September, Gates commanded an army of over 10,000 soldiers, finally outnumbering Burgoyne's army.

Gates determined that he should pick out the best defensive ground in the region between Burgoyne and Albany and await the British there. At first, he gathered his army at a place called Stillwater. Then, after consulting with the locals, moved his army about three miles further north to Bemis Heights. There, he relied on Polish Colonel Tadeusz Kościuszko to build the defenses.

Tadeusz Kościuszko

Kościuszko is an interesting figure himself. He had grown up as a member of minor nobility in Poland. During the 1760’s he worked as a military instructor for the Corps of Cadets in Poland. When the country descended into civil war, his family sided with the rebels against the King. Rather than pick a side, Kościuszko fled the country. He settled in Paris. As a foreigner, he could not attend the military academy there. Instead, he enrolled in Paris’ Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. At the same time, he audited lectures at the Military Academy and made use of the military libraries in Paris. If you think about it, this was absurd. It was a security risk for a foreigner to receive grades and a degree from the military academy, but officials had no problems with him sitting in on the classes and learning everything the instructor had to say. But, that’s government bureaucracy I guess.

Tadeusz Kościuszko
(from Wikimedia)

After the partition of Poland in 1772, Kościuszko returned home to find his family broke from the war. He attempted to elope with the daughter of the local governor, but the Governor’s soldiers caught the young couple and beat him severely. He returned to Paris, alone and out of money.

Kościuszko’s education in the French enlightenment, and his experience with petty aristocrats, left him with a fairly hostile view toward tyrannical leaders and a fan of liberation movements. When Kościuszko heard about the war in America, he volunteered and traveled to Philadelphia.

At first, he worked as a civilian consultant for some of the defenses along the Delaware River, then received a commission as colonel of engineers and a transfer to Fort Ticonderoga. There, he had worked with General Gates for a time before Gates left for Philadelphia. Kościuszko had been a part of the retreat from Ticonderoga and remained with the northern army. On Gates’ return as commander of the northern army, he relied on Kościuszko to oversee the construction of defensive works to oppose Burgoyne.

Benedict Arnold

Also joining Gates at Bemis Heights was General Benedict Arnold, fresh from his victory at Fort Stanwix. Arnold’s role in capturing Fort Ticonderoga back in 1775 and his success in preventing the British from capturing the fort in 1776 with his improvised navy, among other accomplishments, gave Arnold a fair amount of command credibility. He was now a major general, but still frustrated that he was more junior to Major General Lincoln who had been commissioned before him.

Arnold and Gates had gotten along well in earlier years when both men were in upstate New York together. Gates knew of Arnold’s record and his abilities and gave him command of the left wing of the army.

Richard Varick
(from Wikimedia)

However, when General Schuyler left for Philadelphia, Arnold took two of Schuyler’s staff officers onto his own command, Richard Varick and Henry Brockholst Livingston. Gates’ aide, Colonel James Wilkinson, who you may recall from Episode 118 was mixed up the conspiracy between General Gates and Lee to bring down General Washington, was by this time an old hand at internal petty politics within the army. Wilkinson pointed out to Gates that Arnold’s decision to take two of Schuyler’s aides onto his staff meant that Arnold might not be particularly loyal to Gates. He showed Gates letters from both men where they badmouthed Gates’ actions in the past.

Gates hinted to Arnold that he wanted the two men removed from Arnold’s staff. Arnold, however, refused to take the hint and kept the officers where they were. A few days later, in what Arnold took to be a petty reprisal, Wilkinson issued orders to move several regiments from Arnold’s command on the left wing to Glover’s command on the right wing. Arnold lost his temper and wrote an angry letter to Gates. In response, Gates said it was just an oversight that would be countermanded, but it never was.

The disagreement over staffing grew into a full-blown dispute between the two generals that would never heal. Gates saw Arnold as part of Team Schuyler and potentially disloyal to him. Arnold saw Gates as a petty officer putting internal politics above the war effort. I don’t think either man was wrong in their assessment of the other. The relationship between Gates and Arnold would never again be a good one.

Bemis Heights Defenses

On the morning of September 19th, American pickets noted the advance of the British Army toward Bemis Heights. General Gates was happy to sit behind his defenses and to let the British try to force him out.

Troop Deployments (from Wikimedia)

General Arnold disagreed. Arnold feared that the British would send a force against the American right wing to distract the army. Then, it would send a flanking force through the woods to move on the left flank. Once in the fields, the British could bring up their cannons and roll the American left, pushing everyone to retreat toward the Hudson river. Sentries detecting movement in the woods confirmed that this was likely what would happen. Gates seemed to think, bring it on. The British can try to charge up hills against a dug in enemy. They will take an obscene number of casualties if they do. He did not seem concerned that British artillery might devastate those defenses or that similar flanking maneuvers on Long Island or most recently at Brandywine had led to embarrassing losses for the Continentals. His brilliant leadership would lead to a different result.

Arnold, supported by Colonel Morgan, had a different idea. They wanted to advance the left wing of the army and hit the British in the woods before they could form up in the fields near the heights. A fight in the forest was not a strength for either British regulars or Hessians. Most of the Indian scouts had abandoned the British after the loss at Bennington, putting the British at a real disadvantage in that type of warfare.

After considerable badgering and argument, Gates split the difference. He retained the Continental right wing, under the command of General Benjamin Lincoln, and supported by Generals Glover, Nixon and Patterson. These armies would hold Bemis Heights against a potential attack. General Arnold supported by Generals Poor and Learned, and Colonel Morgan could advance into the woods on the American left and engage the enemy there. If they failed, they could retreat back to the heights and participate in the final defense.

Battle of Freeman’s Farm

The British attack came pretty much as the Americans expected. General Burgoyne deployed his Germans under the command of General Riedesel down the trail along the Hudson River to attack the American right. This group also took the bulk of the army’s artillery. In the center, General Burgoyne rode with division commander General James Hamilton and four regiments supported by artillery. Against the American left, Burgoyne deployed General Simon Fraser and his regulars, along with a couple of German regiments and the small remainder of Indians and loyalists that remained with the army.

American Assault Freeman's Farm
(from British Battles)

The Germans on the American right found it tough going as the column marched down the river road. The Americans had burned several bridges across streams and felled numerous trees across the road. The soldiers struggled to remove the impediments to make it into position by 2:00 PM. Similarly General Fraser on the American left had to march nearly two miles further west to move around a deep ravine.

On the American left, General Arnold advanced with his division, with Colonel Morgan’s riflemen in the front. The advancing British ran into Morgan’s riflemen at a small cabin on Freeman’s farm. Freeman had been a local farmer who had long since fled to Canada due to his Tory sentiments.

There, Morgan’s riflemen startled the British advance skirmishers and forced them to retreat. Morgan’s men charged after the retreating skirmishers, only to run into the entire British center. The Americans fell under cannon fire and quickly retreated back into the woods. Both sides took devastating losses. Morgan’s riflemen picked off the officers from the skirmishing companies before taking heavy casualties themselves from the British cannons. Many of the British skirmishers took friendly fire as they retreated back to the main British lines. General Arnold rode through the front lines, encouraging his men to advance. The fighting lasted about 45 minutes until both sides pulled back to assess the damages.

The lull lasted about two hours until shortly before 4:00 PM, both sides reengaged with the fiercest fighting of the day. The American riflemen picked off artillery officers and crews, allowing the Continentals to capture several cannon. Hamilton sent in British regular reinforcements to retake the cannons and turn them against the Continentals once again. General Burgoyne also appeared near the front to encourage the men. He got within range of Morgan’s riflemen, but they mistakenly picked off a captain that Burgoyne was conferring with. The captain had a fancier saddle that caused the sniper to mistake him for the general.

Freeman's Farm (from British Battles)

Despite the fierce fighting, General Gates held back the American right at the Heights, not wanting to commit all of his forces to the fighting in case another attack came on the right. Similarly, Burgoyne held back most of Fraser’s force on the American left in case the Americans tried a flanking attack from that side. As a result, the Continental forces under Arnold and the British under Hamilton bore the bulk of the intense fighting.

At one point, the Americans almost forced the British center to buckle, but Major General Phillips personally rode in with four cannons to hold the Americans at bay while the British line could regroup.

By late afternoon Burgoyne ordered General Riedesel to secure the baggage and lead his soldiers against the right of Arnold’s advancing Continentals. This was a risky move since it left the British baggage, and a portion of its artillery, relatively unguarded. General Gates could have swooped down and captured all of it. Gates, however, remained secure in his entrenchments, unwilling to venture out.

Benedict Arnold
(from Wikimedia)

Riedesel advanced with several hundred soldiers and two cannons to find the Continentals close to overrunning Hamilton’s center. Riedesel ordered a charge and pushed back the startled Continentals. This attack near the end of the day secured British possession of the field. Only sunset and darkness finally put an end to the intense fighting, as the Americans drew back to their lines.

General Arnold was, in fact, fighting two battles at once. One with the British, the other with General Gates. Over the course of the battle, Gates had refused to comply with Arnold’s increasingly desperate calls for reinforcements. At one point, Gates even sent orders for Arnold to send back a regiment to protect Gates’ headquarters.

In frustration, Arnold finally rode back to headquarters himself to make his demands in person. Gates finally relented and sent off a brigade under the command of General Ebenezer Learned. Gates, however, refused to allow Arnold to return to the battle and kept him in camp. Learned’s reinforcements got lost in the woods and missed most of the battle.

At one point, after receiving concerning reports about the course of the battle, Arnold had enough and galloped off on his horse determined to enter the action. Gates ordered his aide, Wilkinson, to chase after Arnold and bring him back. Arnold reluctantly obeyed the direct order to return. Thus Arnold missed the end of the battle.

Aftermath

At the end of the day, the British held the field, so Burgoyne declared victory in his letters to London. However, the British had taken nearly 600 casualties that they could ill-afford. The Americans had lost about half that number. Although the British held the field of battle around Freeman’s farm, they had not even reached the main American lines still several miles away at Bemis Heights. Even most British officers conceded that the Americans had fought well and held their own against the regulars.

That night, the wolves came down from the hills to feed on the dead and dying as each side considered their next moves. Many of Burgoyne’s officers wanted to advance again the next morning in hopes of catching the Americans still in disarray. Burgoyne, however, decided against it. The men were too exhausted. He did consider another offensive on the 21st. However, before dawn, he received a letter from General Henry Clinton in New York City. Clinton's letter said that he would attempt an attack on some American forts in the lower Hudson valley in order to distract the Americans. Burgoyne took this as hope that perhaps he might get some support from New York City after all. He knew London had planned to send reinforcements to New York City and that their arrival might encourage Clinton to go on the offensive.

Burgoyne opted to halt his offensive and await more information on a possible relief column. For the next couple of weeks, both sides nursed their wounds, buried their dead, and planned their next steps.

Next week, during this pause, the Americans strike at Burgoyne’s rear, including a raid on Fort Ticonderoga.

- - -

Next Episode 162 Raid on Fort Ticonderoga

Previous Episode 160 Paoli Massacre & Fall of Philadelphia

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American Revolution Podcast is distributed 100% free of charge. If you can chip in to help defray my costs, I'd appreciate whatever you can give. Make a one time donation through my PayPal account.

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Further Reading

Websites

Horatio Gates: https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/horatio-gates

Tadeusz Kościuszko: https://www.battlefields.org/learn/biographies/tadeusz-kosciuszko

Battle of Freeman’s Farm: https://www.britishbattles.com/war-of-the-revolution-1775-to-1783/battle-of-freemans-farm

The Battle of Saratoga (First)/ Freeman’s Farm: https://revolutionarywar.us/year-1777/first-battle-saratoga

Halsey, Francis Whiting. “GENERAL SCHUYLER'S PART IN THE BURGOYNE CAMPAIGN.” Proceedings of the New York State Historical Association, vol. 12, 1913, pp. 109–118. www.jstor.org/stable/42890006

Brandow, John. H. “GUIDE TO THE SARATOGA BATTLEFIELD.” Proceedings of the New York State Historical Association, vol. 12, 1913, pp. 315–320. www.jstor.org/stable/42890016

Strach, Stephen G. “A MEMOIR OF THE EXPLOITS OF CAPTAIN ALEXANDER FRASER AND HIS COMPANY OF BRITISH MARKSMEN 1776-1777 (Continued).” Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, vol. 63, no. 255, 1985, pp. 164–179, www.jstor.org/stable/44229658

Hargreaves, Reginald “Burgoyne and America's Destiny” American Heritage Magazine, Volume 7, Issue 4, June 1956: https://www.americanheritage.com/burgoyne-and-americas-destiny

Lynch, Wayne “Debating Arnold’s Role at Freeman’s Farm” Journal of the American Revolution, September 12, 2013: https://allthingsliberty.com/2013/09/debating-arnolds-role-freemans-farm

Free eBooks
(from archive.org unless noted)

Anbury, Thomas Travel through Various Parts of North America, Vol. 1, William Lane, 1789.

Baster, James (ed) The British Invasion from the North: The Campaigns of Generals Carleton and Burgoyne from Canada, Joel Munsell’s Sons, 1887.

Bird, Harrison March To Saratoga General Burgoyne And The American Campaign 1777,
Oxford Univ. Press, 1963

Brandow, John H. The story of old Saratoga; the Burgoyne campaign, to which is added New York's share in the revolution, Brandow Printing, 1919.

Clay, Steven E. Staff Ride Handbook for the Saratoga Campaign, 13 June to 8 November 1777, Combat Studies Institute Press, 2018 (US Army Website):.

Eelking, Max von, (translated by Stone, William L.) Memoirs of Major General Riedesel, Vol. 1, J. Munsell, 1868.

Hadden, James Hadden's Journal and Orderly Books, Joel Munsell’s Sons, 1884.

Hudleston, Francis J. Gentleman Johnny Burgoyne : misadventures of an English general in the Revolution, Bobbs-Merrill Co. 1927.

Luzader, John Decision on the Hudson, National Park Service, 1975.

Moore, Howard P. A Life of General John Stark of New Hampshire, New York self-published, 1949.

Riedesel, Friederike Charlotte Luise, Freifrau von Letters and journals relating to the war of the American Revolution, and the capture of the German troops at Saratoga, Joel Munsell, 1867.

Stone, William Leete, The Campaign of Lieut. Gen. John Burgoyne and the expedition of Lieut. Col. Barry St. Leger, Albany, NY: Joel Munsell, 1877.

Walworth, Ellen H. Battles of Saratoga, 1777; the Saratoga Monument Association, 1856-1891, Joel Munsell’s Sons, 1891.

Books Worth Buying
(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*

Furneaux, Rupert The Battle of Saratoga, Stein and Day 1971.

Gabriel, Michael P. The Battle of Bennington: Soldiers & Civilians, History Press, 2012.

Ketchum, Richard M. Saratoga, Turning Point of America’s Revolutionary War, Henry Holt & Co, 1997.

Logusz, Michael O. With Musket and Tomahawk, The Saratoga Campaign and the Wilderness War of 1777, Casemate Publishing, 2010

Luzader, John F. Saratoga: A Military History of the Decisive Campaign of the American Revolution, Casemate Publishers, 2008

Mintz, Max M. The Generals of Saratoga: John Burgoyne and Horatio Gates, Yale Univ. Press, 1990.

Philbrick, Nathaniel Valiant Ambition: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and the Fate of the American Revolution, Viking, 2016.

Snow, Dean 1777: Tipping Point at Saratoga, Oxford Univ. Press, 2016.

* As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.

American Revolution Podcast

Sunday, October 4, 2020

ARP169 Articles of Confederation

Lancaster

York

Laurens Replaces Hancock

Word of Saratoga

Duché Letter

Articles of Confederation

Ratification

Further Reading

Websites

Free eBooks
(from archive.org unless noted)

Books Worth Buying
(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*

Sunday, September 13, 2020

ARP166 Surrender at Saratoga

First Do No Harm,

by K. S. Avard (Releases Sept. 25, 2020).

Sunday, August 9, 2020

ARP161 Freeman’s Farm (1st Saratoga)

Sunday, October 4, 2020

ARP169 Articles of Confederation

Lancaster

York

Laurens Replaces Hancock

Word of Saratoga

Duché Letter

Articles of Confederation

Ratification

Further Reading

Websites

Free eBooks(from archive.org unless noted)

Books Worth Buying(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*

Sunday, September 13, 2020

ARP166 Surrender at Saratoga

First Do No Harm,

by K. S. Avard (Releases Sept. 25, 2020).

Sunday, August 9, 2020

ARP161 Freeman’s Farm (1st Saratoga)

Free eBooks
(from archive.org unless noted)

Books Worth Buying
(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*