On March 4, 1797, the presidency changed hands. George Washington left office and John Adams assumed the presidency.
Jefferson Sworn In
The new government actually got started without the president. At 10:00 AM the US Senate met in a special session. John Adams still formally headed the Senate as the sitting Vice President, but after Adams conducted the electoral college vote a month earlier and declared himself president, he thanked the Senators for his eight years presiding over that body and left. Adams had beaten Jefferson by three electoral votes. While the outcome was expected, no one was certain. The electoral votes had been held under seal until the count. Electors had told people who they voted for, but some might have lied. Until the votes were counted, no one could be certain. Adams actually prepared for the possibility of a Jefferson victory in the count and practiced showing firmness and good grace in the event that Jefferson had won.
Jefferson had come in second, meaning he would serve as Adams’ Vice President. William Bingham, the Senate’s President pro tempore, issued the oath of office to the new Vice President Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson then assumed his seat as the President of the Senate and administered the oath to the eight new Senators who took office that same day.
Following the oaths, the Senate ended its special session and would not meet again for several months. Jefferson and most of the Senators then walked downstairs to the first floor of Congress Hall, right next to what we today call Independence Hall, to witness the inauguration of the new president.
Meeting with Jefferson
Jefferson had debated not attending the inauguration at all. In the end, he opted to go, for fear that people would say his absence was the result of him being upset about losing the election. He had been at home in Monticello, but headed up to Philadelphia for the event, arriving two days before the inauguration. He called on Adams at his home. It was the first time the two men had been in the same room together in over four years.
Earlier Jefferson had written a letter to President-elect Adams, insisting he was happy not to have been elected president, that he wished Adams well, and warned that the Jay Treaty might lead to war with France. He hoped that Adams could avoid war. Jefferson also warned Adams that Alexander Hamilton, who still held influence with many men in the government, would try to control his administration. Adams never saw the letter. Jefferson showed it to James Madison before sending it. Madison advised him to let Adams make his own way. Jefferson agreed and never sent the letter. It's possible that Jefferson discussed some of these things in their talk. It's also possible they just spoke in polite generalities. We don't know because there is no record of this conversation.
They may have discussed France a little, because the following day, the day before inauguration, Adams called on Jefferson, who was a guest at James Madison’s home. This was unusual. President Washington usually demanded everyone call on him as a matter of protocol. Adams did not have this concern.
Adams asked Jefferson to consider going to France and help negotiate an understanding between the two countries. Jefferson declined, saying he was tired of residing in Europe and that the Vice President should not be out of the country for the long time it would take to negotiate anything. Adams then suggested sending Madison. Jefferson agreed to take the offer to Madison, who was not present for the conversation, but Madison would also refuse to go. After their meeting, Jefferson moved into the hotel where Adams was staying, creating a message of unity on the eve of the inauguration.
Adams’ efforts to reach out to the leaders of the political opposition showed his efforts to support a bipartisan government and an attempt to rise above partisan politics.
Inauguration
Adams did his best to set the tone at his inauguration. President Washington had travelled to such formal events in a large coach with six horses, and usually a military retinue. Adams purchased what was described as a new simple black chariot. This simply meant a small but respectable carriage. Adams used only two horses. He also refused a military escort or to have any retinue of public officials in a procession with him. He wanted to keep it simple.
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| Taking the Oath |
Adams chose to wear a simple gray suit to wear to his inauguration. It was devoid of any fancy buttons or buckles, that were the style at the time. He did wear a small ceremonial sword. He also powdered his hair, but then so did Washington and Jefferson. Washington out-simpled Adams by simply walking to Congressional Hall without any carriage at all.
Adams opted to give his inaugural address before his swearing in. He spoke for about 15 minutes. He told his audience that he was out of the country as a diplomat when the country adopted the Constitution. He received the document itself before hearing from everyone about how it was being received. He spoke of his support for the Constitution, the importance of supporting a republican government against its natural enemies: “the spirit of sophistry, the spirit of party, the spirit of intrigue, the profligacy of corruption, and the pestilence of foreign influence”
Following the speech, Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth administered the oath of office. Ellsworth was the first Chief Justice to administer the oath. When Washington first took office, there was no Supreme Court so no chief justice, so the chancellor of New York administered the oath. For Washington’s second term, Justice William Cushing administered the oath. It’s not clear why Chief Justice John Jay did not do it, but he didn’t. Ellsworth had replaced Jay as Chief Justice about a year prior to Adams’ inauguration.
Following the oath, President Adams simply bowed and prepared to depart. Former President George Washington insisted that Adams and Jefferson leave before him, reflecting their new rank as the leaders. Adams noted that Washington seemed happier than he had been in some time. Adams wrote to Abigail the following day, she was still in Massachusetts. Adams wrote regarding Washington: “Methought I heard him think Ay! I am fairly out and you fairly in! see which of Us will be happiest.”
The men walked outside, to cheering crowds and cannon fire. Adams simply went back to his hotel room, alone. Later that afternoon, Washington called on Adams, to congratulate him again and express his sincere wishes of success. Washington then left to attend a feast at another hotel in honor of his farewell. Adams did not go there, or anywhere else. He spent the evening alone in his hotel room.
The Honeymoon
If Adams hoped that his displays of simplicity would engender some good will for his administration, he was right. As Vice President, Adams had received his fair share of criticism, especially from the Republican press. He was too monarchical. He enjoyed aristocracy and sought to implement it in America. He enjoyed fancy titles. Political leaders had even dubbed him His rotundity.
Benjamin Franklin Bache’s newspaper The Aurora, had been one of the most savage critics of the Washington administration and Vice President Adams. In September 1796, during the election, an Aurora editorial told its readers they would have to choose between a friend of liberty, or John Adams. The paper claimed that Adams was an “advocate for hereditary power.”
Following the inauguration, however, the Aurora was conspicuously respectful of Adams. It praised the new president’s “incorruptible integrity” and the “Republican plainness” that he had shown at his inauguration. Part of this praise may have been a final dig at Washington, implying that Adams was showing good qualities that Washington had not. It might also have been that the paper hoped that showing some support and encouragement might convince the new administration to adopt some of the Republican policies that the paper supported. It may also have been a more general application of the “honeymoon effect” where new presidents usually get near universal acclaim, at least until they do something that the critics don’t like.
There was some reason to believe that the honeymoon period might last for some time. Congress did not plan to meet again for another eight months, planning to begin its first session in November.
Adams could run the day to day affairs of government without any real concerns of Congressional meddling or criticism.
George Washington remained in Philadelphia, still packing up the Presidential residence for a few days, perhaps even a couple of weeks, before moving out. Adams remained in residence at the Francis Hotel at Fourth Street, along with Vice President Jefferson.
When Washington did finally move out, Adams began the process of taking possession of the presidential mansion. It was not an easy transition. Washington had purchased pretty much all of the furniture, including carpets and drapes for the residence. He took all of that home with him, leaving a relatively empty shell of a building. Washington had a staff of about two dozen people to run the household. These included household servants, laborers for the kitchen and stables, as well as personal secretaries and aides. At various times about 6-9 of the servants were slaves that Washington brought up from Mount Vernon.
They, along with most of the paid staff, either left with Washington for Mount Vernon, or went elsewhere. After Washington left, the servants apparently partied hard in the empty house for several days, leaving a huge mess.
On March 22, John wrote to Abigail about his first night in the house.
Last night for the first time I slept in our new House.— But what a Scene! The Furniture belonging to the Publick is in the most deplorable Condition— There is not a Chair fit to sit in. The Beds and Bedding are in a woeful Pickle. This House has been a scene of the most scandalous Drunkenness and Disorder among the servants, that ever I heard of. I would not have one of them for any Consideration. There is not a Carpet nor a Curtain, nor a Glass nor Linnen nor China nor any Thing.
Fortunately, Congress had granted Adams a one-time allowance of $14,000 to refurnish the residence. This helped but it was a difficult transition.
As President, Adams received a salary of $25,000 per year. This pay, however, was not just for himself. The president had to fund his entire office out of this money. He had to pay all of his aides, secretaries and assistants. Rent on the Presidential mansion alone was $2700 per year. Formal events, banquets, and other presidential functions were all paid out of the presidential salary. Washington had spent more than $5000 per year from the profits of his Mount Vernon plantation to supplement the costs. Adams had no plantation, and had no slaves to provide free labor for much of the work. I just get this image of Adams sitting, alone, in this filthy empty house thinking, what the heck?
Eventually, they would pull together a workable staff. But until Abigail arrived in May, Adams was pretty much on his own, in a near-empty house with no staff, trying to start his presidency.
Political Divide
As I said, Adams felt some goodwill from the opposition. He opted not to appoint any new cabinet members, but simply left President Washington’s team in place, even though Washington was not particularly thrilled with the cabinet when he left office. There was no tradition at the time to make changes with a new administration. Adams decided it would preserve the political harmony to leave things as they were, show respect for President Washington's choices, and avoid the appearance of appointing his own political toadies.
Washington’s original cabinet was pretty diverse, with Federalist Hamilton on one end, and Democratic-Republican Jefferson on the other. By the end of his term, though, his cabinet was pretty much all federalists. The cabinet secretaries had no particular loyalty or allegiance to President Adams. In fact, they all seemed to be taking guidance from a private attorney in New York by the name of Alexander Hamilton. By this time, Adams considered Hamilton a political enemy, particularly over Hamilton’s efforts to syphon off votes for Adams in the presidential election. If there was one thing that both President Adams and Vice President Jefferson agreed on, it was that Hamilton remained a huge threat to their administration.
The fighting between Adams and his cabinet began immediately. Adams’ immediate concern was a brewing war with France. I mentioned that Adams had tried to get either Jefferson or Madison Madison for a peace emmissary to Franceto France. After President Washington recalled James Monroe and sent Charles Cotesworth Pinckney as his replacement as minister to France, the French government refused to receive him and sent him packing. In fact, they threatened to arrest him if he did not leave the country. Pinckney left Paris but remained in Lyon, France
Adams proposed to send a three member commission to France to make peace with the French Government. To mollify the anti-Federalist sentiment in France, Adams planned to send one Federalist and two Democratic Republicans. One member he wanted was Elbridge Gerry, who Adams knew from Massachusetts and who had retired from Congress in 1793. Gerry was a Democratic-Republican, but got along with Adams. The other was Madison, who had just retired, not standing for reelection in 1796.
When Adams mentioned his idea to Secretary of Treasury, Oliver Wolcott, the Secretary told him that his entire cabinet would resign en masse if he appointed Madison to anything. Adams backed down. Fortunately Madison did not want the appointment either, and so the matter ended without creating an issue. But it made clear to Adams that his cabinet was not there to support him and his policies. They had their own agenda. Over time, Adams came to the conclusion that his cabinet was a cabal with their own agenda, and that agenda was guided primarily by Hamilton. Even so, Adams left his cabinet in place for nearly his entire administration
Unable to deal with France on his own, Adams opted for something that President Washington had never done - call for a special session of Congress. During Washington’s administration, Congress had gotten into the practice of waiting almost a year after the elections before going into session. They would begin meeting some time in October-December after being elected in November of the prior year.
The planned calendar for 1797 was no different. Other than the two hour Senate session to swear in Vice President Jefferson and the new Senators, Congress scheduled its first regular session for November, about eight months after Adams’ inauguration.
Adams, only a few weeks after his inauguration, issued a call for a special session. He had Secretary of State Timothy Pickering issue the call on March 25 for members to arrive on May 15, to address the diplomatic crisis with France. The day following Congress’ session, President Adams addressed a joint session of Congress.
Adams informed members that French officials had refused to accept the credentials of Washington’s appointee, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and even threatened to arrest him. France has also begun seizing US commercial ships in violation of the Treaty of Amity and Commerce that existed between the US and France. As a result, diplomatic relations with France were suspended.
He noted that France’s action:
evinces a disposition to separate the people of the United States from the Government . . . and thus to produce divisions fatal to our peace. Such attempts ought to be repelled with a decision which shall convince France and the world that we are not a degraded people, humiliated under a colonial spirit of fear and a sense of inferiority, fitted to be the miserable instruments of foreign influence, and regardless of national honor, character, and interest.
In response, Adams recommended sending a new negotiating team to France to demand explanations for their actions. At the same time, Congress needed to build up the US Navy, improve coastal defenses, and enlarge the army, all in preparation for a possible war with France. He did not call for a declaration of war, but indicated that the country should prepare for one.
Federalists, who commanded majorities in the House and Senate strongly praised Adams’ efforts to protect US commerce and his willingness to fight for American honor. Democratic Republicans were similarly outraged by Adams’ position. They viewed French hostility as the direct result of the Jay Treaty that the US had signed with Britain. Adams’ speech made clear that he was determined to maintain President Washington’s policy, which they saw as appeasement to Britain and an abandonment of the US alliance with France.
The opposition newspaper The Aurora, called Adams’ speech to Congress a “War Whoop” designed to provoke a war with France, not prevent one. After two months of praising the new president, the Aurora returned to the same relentless attacks on the administration that Washington had endured.
No one seemed sure whether the US would go to war with France or not. One thing was sure though. The honeymoon period of the Adams presidency was over.
Next week: A financial crisis adds to President Adams’ troubles.
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Next Episode 399 Financial Crisis of 1797 (coming soon)
Previous Episode 397 End of Washington's Presidency
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Further Reading
Websites
Inaugural Address of John Adams https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/adams.asp
Vice President Jefferson’s inaugural remarks: https://www.congress.gov/senate-journal/996
Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, 28 December 1796,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-29-02-0190-0002
“John Adams to Abigail Adams, 5 March 1797,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04-12-02-0005
“John Adams to Abigail Adams, 22 March 1797,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04-12-02-0025
John Adams - Special Message to the Senate and the House; May 16 1797 https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/ja97-03.asp
DeConde, Alexander. “Washington’s Farewell, the French Alliance, and the Election of 1796.” The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol. 43, no. 4, 1957, pp. 641–58. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1902277
Holder, Jean S. “The Sources of Presidential Power: John Adams and the Challenge to Executive Primacy.” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 101, no. 4, 1986, pp. 601–16. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2150796
Free eBooks
(from archive.org unless noted)
Adams, Charles F. The Life of John Adams, Vol. 2, Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co. 1871.
Morse, Jr. John T. John Adams, Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Co. 1884.
Wood, John The History of the Administration of John Adams, Esq., Late President of the United States, New York: Barlas and Ward, 1802.
Books Worth Buying
(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*
Brown, Ralph A. The Presidency of John Adams, Univ. of Kansas Press, 1975.
Chernow, Ron Alexander Hamilton, Penguin Press, 2004.
Chernow, Ron Washington, A Life, Penguin Press, 2010.
Chervinsky, Lindsay M. Making the Presidency John Adams and the Precedents That Forged the Republic, Oxford Univ. Press, 2024.
Chervinsky, Lindsay M. The Cabinet: George Washington and the Creation of an American Institution, Belknap Press, 2020.Cunningham, Noble E. The Jeffersonian Republicans: The Formation of Party Organization, 1789-1801, Univ. of NC Press, 1957 (borrow on archive.org).
Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788–1800, Oxford Univ. Press, 1993 (borrow on archive.org).
Kurtz, Stephen G. The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795-1800, Literary Licensing, LLC, 2011.
Malone, Dumas Jefferson and the Ordeal of Liberty, Little Brown & Co. 1962 (borrow on archive.org).
McCullough, David John Adams, Simon & Schuster, 2001.
Meacham, Jon Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power, Random House, 2012
Miller, John C. Alexander Hamilton and the Growth of the New Nation (or Portrait in Paradox), Harper & Brothers, 1959 (borrow on archive.org)
Nester, William The Hamiltonian Vision, 1789-1800, Potomac Books, 2012.
Pasley, Jeffrey L. The First Presidential Contest: 1796 and the Founding of American Democracy, University Press of Kansas, 2016.
Randall, Willard Sterne Thomas Jefferson: A Life, Henry Holt and Co. 1993.
Sharp, James R. American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis, Yale Univ. Press, 1993 (relevant chapter on JSTOR).
Shaw Peter The Character of John Adams, Univ. of NC Press, 1976.
Smith, Page John Adams, Vol. 2, Doubleday, 1962 (borrow on archive.org).
Tagg, James Benjamin Franklin Bache and the Philadelphia Aurora, Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1991 - Chapter 10: “Partisan Rage: The Assault on Washington and the Election of 1796.” Benjamin Franklin Bache and the Philadelphia “Aurora,” (available on JSTOR).
Wood, Gordon S. Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815, Oxford Univ. Press, 2009.
* As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.
