Sunday, October 20, 2024

ARP331 Washington Goes Home

Last week we covered the British evacuation of New York. At the same time that the British were leaving, the Continental Army continued its process of disbanding. As we discussed in Episode 327, the Continental Congress furloughed most of the army in June, 1783. The furloughs allowed the soldiers to return home, but avoided the issue of settling their back pay and other things owed to them. It also permitted Congress to recall the army if some unforeseen events happened requiring the army to react.

Washington’s Farewell

In October, Congress made the furloughs permanent and discharged everyone on furlough. It also discharged all Continental soldiers except for a small contingent at Fort Pitt, and the few hundred officers and men still in New York.

General Washington Resigns his Commission
By Jonathan Trumbull

Washington, who was in Princeton with Congress at the time, had been lobbying for a standing army to remain during the peace. Part of Washington’s concerns were over western forts, such as Detroit that were supposed to be turned over to the Americans, but were still held by the British. Washington had sent an officer to discuss the turnover pursuant to the terms of a peace treaty. The commander in Canada Friedrich Haldimand refused to discuss any turnover until he received orders from London, which he had not. Without an army to force the issue, the British garrisons remained on US territory.

Despite such matters, the cost of such an army, combined with the general notion that standing armies in peacetime were not necessary, prevented Congress from accepting Washington’s arguments. Congress ordered the final discharge of the army. It also accepted the resignation of Secretary of War, Benjamin Lincoln, who wished to return to Massachusetts.

Washington himself was eager to get home. He wrote to a former officer in France,

“I, who am only waiting for the ceremonials, or till the British forces shall have taken leave of New York, am placed in an awkward and disagreeable situation, it being my anxious desire to quit the walks of public life, and under the shadow of my own vine and my own fig tree to seek those enjoyments and that relaxation, which a mind, that has been constantly upon the stretch for more than eight years, stands so much in need of. I have fixed this epoch to the arrival of the definitive treaty, or to the evacuation of my country by our newly acquired friends.”

On November 2, Washington issued his farewell orders of the army. He announced Congress’ decision to discharge virtually all of the army. He took a moment to reflect on the amazing accomplishment of defeating the British Army. He called it “little short of a standing Miracle.”

Entry into New York

He admitted that he could not begin to describe in this address, all of the hardships they had faced over the course of the war. He hoped they all would acknowledge the “prospect of happiness opened by the confirmation of our Independence and Sovereignty.”

He called on the officers and men to be as virtuous and as useful as citizens as they had been persevering and victorious as soldiers. The general acknowledged the frustrations over the debts owed to them, but called up them to remain honorably supportive of the government, and even called on them to support a stronger federal government that would be capable of paying off all of the war debts.

Washington concluded by offering his thanks to all, professing his attachment and friendship, and called on heaven’s blessings as he concluded his own military service.

Dutch Ambassador

During this same time period, an embarrassing diplomatic incident occurred. In October. The new Dutch Ambassador to the US arrived in Philadelphia. Peter John Van Berckel had been the mayor of Rotterdam. His brother had played a role in the draft treaty that caused Britain to go to war with the Netherlands. The ambassador arrived, not only to establish formal diplomatic relations, but also with much needed cash from a loan that had been arranged in Europe.

Pieter Van Berkel

Ambassador Van Berckel was shocked to find that there was no official in Philadelphia to greet him. Congress had left for Princeton months earlier, an event about which he was unaware. The Secretary for Foreign Affairs, Robert Livingston, had resigned and gone home to New York by this time.

The Ambassador managed to rent a room at City Tavern, figured out that Congress had moved to Princeton. He sent a letter announcing his arrival.

It took several days from Congress to receive the letter. President Elias Boudinot immediately dispatched his secretary to Philadelphia with apologies. When Van Berckel made his way to Princeton, a cavalry escort and various officials finally turned out to greet him. It was an inauspicious beginning to diplomatic relations, and a sign that Congress still had a long way to go in establishing a functioning government.

Washington in New York

As I discussed last week, Washington traveled from Princeton to West Point in mid November to await the final British evacuation. When he left Princeton, he forwarded the bulk of his baggage to Virginia, anticipating that he would be on his way home after his ceremonial entry into New York. When the British Army finally pulled out on November 25, Washington and the Continentals rode into town that same day.

New York City was a wreck. It had suffered two major fires during the British occupation. No one bothered to rebuild anything. The British simply used burned out lots and areas for camping. The occupying army also had burned most of the fences and other combustible materials, particularly in their final months. Many of the civilians, both those who had remained and those returning, appeared emaciated and with frayed clothing, owing to years of deprivation and hard living. Many witnesses contrasted the neat polished uniforms of the departing British with the bedraggled look of the Continentals and militia who took back the city.

Despite the appearances of the town or the people, the event was a joyful one. Washington had been focused on retaking New York for most of the war, and was pleased that the matter was finally complete.

That evening Governor Clinton hosted a party at Fraunces Tavern, which Washington and his officers attended. The guests drank 13 toasts, the first being “To the United States of America.” Fireworks and bonfires continued the celebrations into the night.

Washington made his quarters in the house across the street from the tavern. For the next few days, he received visitors there, many of whom were returning NY patriots who had fled the city years earlier. Washington also gave several public addresses, and attended various banquets and parties in the evenings.

On his second day in the city Washington and Alexander Hamilton paid a morning visit to Hercules Mulligan, an Irish tailor. They shared a breakfast with the local. Mulligan and Hamilton had been college roommates before the war. Mulligan had been involved in some of the early activities by the Sons of Liberty before the war. But when the British captured the town, Mulligan remained a civilian in the city, under British rule.

Farewell at Fraunces Tavern

The reason that Washington visited him was to thank him publicly for his services during the war. Unbeknownst to almost anyone, Mulligan had been a member of the Culper Spy ring, and had provided invaluable intelligence to Washington during the war. The commander-in-chief wanted to make a public call to make sure everyone knew that Mulligan was not the British collaborator that he appeared to be during the occupation.

After a week and a half in the city, on December 4, the British fleet finally sailed out into open sea. Washington held a final party for his officers at Fraunces Tavern that began at noon that day. The only account of the event comes form Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge, who wrote about it in his memoirs decades later:

We had been assembled but a few moments when his excellency entered the room. After partaking of a slight refreshment in an almost breathless silence the General filled his glass with wine and turning to the officers said, “With a heart full of love and gratitude I now take leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy as your former ones have been glorious and honorable.
After the officers had taken a glass of wine General Washington said, “I cannot come to each of you but shall feel obliged if each of you will come and take me by the hand.” General Knox, the closest officer to Washington, walked up to the General and the two hugged and kissed with tears running down their faces. In the same affectionate manner every officer in the room marched up and parted with the general in chief. Such a scene of sorrow and weeping I had never before witnessed and fondly hope I may never be called to witness again.

When the lunch ended, the officers escorted their commander to the wharf, where a ferry carried him to New Jersey. The officers then took their leave of each other and returned home to their new lives as civilians.

Move to Maryland

Before he could return home, Washington would have to submit his formal resignation to Congress. He could no longer go to Princeton to do that, because Congress was gone.

We discussed several weeks ago how Congress had to flee from Philadelphia after the city failed to protect Congress from mutinous Continental soldiers. Congress had remained in Princeton for months, but the delegates found it unsuited to their needs. The small college town had few taverns and no real social life. Living quarters were also rather cramped. During most of the time Congress was there, it only had delegations from six states, meaning it did not even have a quorum to conduct business.

Washington Leaves NY

In October, after finally getting enough delegates for a quorum, Congress decided that it was going to need its own capital. It resolved to build a federal town somewhere on the banks of the Delaware River, where buildings suitable for Congress could be built. The southern states felt neglected by this resolution. So a few days later, Congress passed another resolution calling for an alternate federal town also be established on the bank of the Potomac River. At the time, Congress anticipated moving back and forth between these two capitals. As it would take years to build these new capitals, Congress resolved to meet in Annapolis, Maryland and Trenton, New Jersey, in alternating years. Congress then adjourned on November 12, agreeing to meet again in Annapolis a couple of weeks later.

The move to Annapolis did not do much for attendance. It took several weeks for delegates from seven states to show up, giving Congress a quorum. This was a concern because there was one issue on which the clock was ticking.

Just before Congress departed Princeton at the end of November, it received the final Peace Treaty from Paris. The final article of the treaty required that both countries ratify and exchange copies of the treaty within six months of the initial signing in early September. Nearly three months had passed until the treaty arrived before Congress. It could take another three months for a return voyage to complete the exchange. So it was critical that the treaty be ratified as soon as possible. If not, Britain could reopen the negotiations. With France and Spain now having agreed to peace, and since Britain had given the Americans so many concessions solely so that the war with France and Spain would end, Britain could simply take back many of the provisions and demand more concessions from the United States before it agreed to a new treaty.

Congress thought it should avoid that possibility, even if it was a remote one, by complying with the six month deadline. Unfortunately, when they received the treaty, there were only six state delegations in attendance, meaning Congress could do nothing.

When Congress reconvened in Maryland in mid-December, only seven state delegations were present. This was enough for a quorum, but the Articles of Confederation required that nine states approve all important matters, and the treaty ending the war was an important matter. Congress anxiously awaited the arrival of two more state delegations. It took about a month, before the delegates from Connecticut arrived. A few days later, Richard Beresford of South Carolina allowed the South Carolina delegation to vote, giving Congress nine votes to ratify the treaty. On January 17, 1784.

It was unclear if a ship could get to London by the March 3 deadline. Congress sent three copies on different ships, hoping one would arrive in time. One copy went to New York where a French Packet ship was about to leave. The ship left with the treaty a few days later, but ran aground and had to return to harbor. The other two copies could not find a ship headed for Europe for more than a month. So Congress missed its deadline.

Fortunately, Britain was in no mood to reopen negotiations. When the treaty arrived in London two months past the deadline, the diplomats exchanged ratifications, thus formally ending the war with some finality on May 12, 1784.

Washington Resigns

Washington was going to have to go to Annapolis to complete his military service. After leaving New York, he stopped in Trenton, where he met with the Governor and other state officials, spending two days there. He then traveled to Philadelphia, where he met with State President John Dickinson, Robert Morris, and two of his old generals: Arthur St. Clair and Edward Hand. Once again he was celebrated with parties and public celebrations. He also addressed the state assembly, groups of merchants, and the public. He also attended a ball at City Tavern. When he left Philadelphia more than a week later, French Ambassador Luzerne, President John Dickinson, and Robert Morris, all escorted him out of the city.

The following day, he paused again in Wilmington, Delaware to accept the honors of officials there. Two days later he sat for a public dinner in Baltimore. Every wanted a moment with the conquering hero, appreciating what he had done, and basking in this moment of victory.

Washington leaves Annapolis after resigning

Finally, on Friday the 19th Washington rode into Annapolis. As he had come to expect, he was met by an honor guard several miles before he entered the city. Among them were Generals Horatio Gates and William Smallwood. The following day, Washington sent a letter to Congress, announcing his intention to resign and asked whether Congress would prefer it in writing or in person. Congress resolved to see him, but only three days later on Tuesday, December 23. Washington spent the rest of the weekend and Monday visiting with others in Annapolis. On Monday night, Congress gave him a public dinner with about 200 people in attendance.

Finally, on Tuesday, Washington was admitted to Congress, which met in the Senate Chamber in the Maryland State House. The new President of Congress, Thomas Mifflin, received him along with the seven state delegations who were in attendance. Mifflin was the only delegate present who was in Congress when they first granted Washington his commission in 1775. If Washington still held a grudge against Mifflin over the Conway Cabal, he did not give any indication of it at this time. Washington had the Congressional Secretary Charles Thompson read his farewell address

Like most of Washington’s speeches, it was a short one, perhaps two or three minutes long. He formally resigned his commission. Interestingly, he referred to the United state in the singular form:

“Happy in the confirmation of our Independence and Sovereignty, and pleased with the opportunity afforded the United States, of becoming a respectable Nation, I resign with satisfaction the appointment I accepted with diffidence.”

He included a brief plea that Congress make good on the promises of pay and pensions to the army.

It's also interesting from the notes for his speech, he also made a few last minute changes to his address, changed “a final farewell” to “an affectionate farewell” and changed “take my ultimate leave of all the employments of public life” by removing the word “ultimate.” Perhaps he was already thinking this would not be the final act in his public life.

When the speech concluded, Washington bowed and left the room for his formal exit. He then came back in to chat with some delegates and with other prominent members of Maryland society who were present. One witness reported:

the General seemed so much affected himself that everybody felt for him, he addressed Congress in a short Speech but very affecting many tears were shed...I think the World never produced a greater man & very few so good.

That evening, Congress hosted one more dinner in Washington’s honor with 13 toasts and 13 canons. After that, Maryland Governor William Paca hosted a grand ball in the statehouse. Months later, when the tavern keeper who hosted the dinner submitted a rather large bill, noting “the entertainment was given to a numerous assemblage of guests, was exceedingly plentiful, and the provisions and liquors good in their kind.” Congress later struck out the explanation for the bill, not wanting their constituents to see the extravagant cost of food and liquor at the party.

With his service complete, Washington, still with a retinue in tow, rode for Mount Vernon. They arrived on Christmas Eve. Two of their grandchildren, Nelly and Wash were there to greet them, as were the staff and a host of other visitors and well-wishers. A young girl who was present wrote “The General and Madame came home on Christmas Eve and such a racket the servants made, for they were glad of their coming. Three handsome young officers came with them. All Christmas afternoon people came to pay their Respects and Duty…. The General seemed very happy.”

The general was, in fact home and ready to enjoy the peaceful comforts of domestic life for the first time in nearly nine years. George Washington was content to be home with a job well done.

Next Week, The establishment of The Society of the Cincinnati creates a new controversy for a country that finally ended the war.

- - -

Next Episode 332 End of the Continental Army (Available October 20, 2024)

Previous Episode 329 Signing the Peace Treaty

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Sunday, October 13, 2024

ARP330 Evacuation of New York

Last week we covered the signing of the peace treaty ending the war. The British still had an army occupying New York in the fall of 1783. Both sides needed to figure out how to disentangle the two armies and implement the peace treaty.

Carleton’s Changing Mission

General Guy Carleton had become the commander of forces in North America in early 1782, after London received word of the British surrender at Yorktown and wanted to replace General Henry Clinton. Carleton received his assignment just weeks before the fall of the North Government in London. The new government under Lord Shelburne took power before he left and continued to support his taking command of North America. Carleton and Admiral Robert Digby were named joint peace commissioners. Their assignment was to end the war in America, but trying to find some way to “reconcile and reunite” Great Britain with its colonies.

Evacuation Day, Washington's Entry

Shortly after his arrival in New York, Carleton received word that the new government under Prime Minister Shelburne was prepared to recognize complete American independence and that Carleton’s job was simply to find a way to evacuate the army and loyalist civilians. Carleton asked to resign his command, not simply wanting to oversee an evacuation, but they convinced him to stay and complete the task of evacuation.

The task of removing the army was not an easy one. He had roughly 30,000 British and Hessian soldiers, including thousands of prisoners still held by the Americans. Carleton also had nearly an equal number of loyalist civilians who wanted to leave with the army. Carleton had to remove everyone, while avoiding the risk of an enemy attack before the withdrawal was complete.

Through much of 1783, Carleton managed the process of removing soldiers and loyalists from New York. He made little progress since the numbers of loyalists seeking refuge in the city, and the return of British and Hessian prisoners, often more than made up for those he was able to ship out of the city. Many of these people were forced to live in tents on Long Island, awaiting an opportunity to leave. An important factor in how fast people could leave the city was the availability of ships.

Carleton set up an Office of Superintendent of Exports and Imports to manage the process. He could not get a good answer as to how many refugees many locations could handle. For example, Carleton had to send agents to Nova Scotia to assess things like timber reserves, arable land, and availability of water to get a better idea of how many refugees he could send there, that could be settled with the existing resources.

In another instance, the general appointed three loyalist colonels, Edward Winslow, Isaac Brown, and Stephen Delancey to serve as agents for more than five thousand loyalist soldiers who were to be settled in New Brunswick. These refugees would create entire new communities out of almost nothing.

Refugees, of course, were free to go wherever they could get transport. Many moved to places like Bermuda, Nassau, the Bahamas, as well as England itself.

As part of this process, Carleton also had to deal with a problem of corruption. Administrators, both civilian and military, expected kickbacks for just about anything. British guards still holding American prisoners regularly took meager food requisitions and sold them to others, allowing prisoners to starve. The prices of nearly everything the army purchases were double market value, thanks to all the kickbacks that were expected.

Rather than investigate and prosecute all of this, Carleton simply fired or reassigned virtually everyone involved with procurements and expenditures, replacing them with new men. This, of course, led to complications as new administrators had to figure out how to get things done. Carleton also created a board to inspect the financial records, similar to a commission that Carleton had overseen in London a few years before.

This Board of Public Accounts was headed by Colonel Duncan Drummond, who I discussed back in Episode 308. At that time, Drummond had opened up an inquiry into corruption that General Clinton had quashed because it was right after Yorktown and Clinton did not want to send more bad news to London. Drummond got his investigation moving forward under General Carleton. Also on the board was Henry White, a civilian merchant who had provided supplies for the British Army under General Howe, much earlier in the war, as well as another merchant, Hugh Wallace. Rather than sweep this problem under the table like his predecessor, Carleton personally chaired many of these weekly meetings, to get to the bottom of army corruption.

Tappan Conference

In April of 1783, before Washington dismantled his army, he wrote to Carleton about the exchange of prisoners. Washington was willing to return the 6000 soldiers captured at Yorktown if Carleton could provide the ships to transport them. Carleton replied that all his ships were tied up moving men and equipment out of New York, and that the prisoners would have to march from Virginia to New York.

Washington also suggested that they meet to discuss cooperation in the orderly withdrawal of the British Army from New York. Several of Carleton’s advisors thought that such a meeting would be problematic. In earlier meetings, American negotiators had tried to get Britain to pay for the care of the British prisoners in American custody. Carleton's advisors were afraid that this might become an issue at the meeting and that it would hold up the release of the British prisoners.

Carleton overruled his advisors and agreed to the meeting. He took with him a civilian loyalist, Judge William Smith and two military aides. They agreed to meet with Washington at Tappan, where the Americans had hanged Major John Andre less than three years prior. The location was a convenient ride from Washington’s headquarters, and easily accessible up the Hudson River by a British ship. Washington brought with him his secretary, Jonathan Trumbull, as well as New York Governor George Clinton, along with New York’s secretary of state and attorney general to discuss any civilian state issues that were relevant.

The meeting was cordial, but got right down to business. Washington put three issues on the table. He wanted to be assured that the British would return slaves that were under their control, as per the peace treaty. Next, he wanted to come to an agreement on the exact date when British troops would leave New York City. Finally, he requested that the British turn over control of Westchester County and Long Island within the next few days.

Carleton could not really agree to any of these terms. The date of the final evacuation would still be some time away. Clinton was dealing with the issues related to moving thousands of men and equipment. Any schedule was largely dependent on available ships and weather. He assured the Americans that he wanted to leave as quickly as possible and was working to that end. But he could not give them a date certain.

As far as giving up land, Carleton was willing to turn over control of Westchester County. He still needed Long Island where he had thousands of refugees awaiting departure. He could not cram all these people into the city.

The question of slaves was the most contentious. Carleton refused to turn over those who had accepted British offers of freedom in exchange for supporting the crown. Many of these men had served under arms. Many others served in a civilian capacity. He would not return them to slavery. Instead, Carleton noted that he would keep track of those that he evacuated and that the owners could be compensated for their value. This position seemed to be a direct violation of the peace treaty. Carleton agreed to allow American inspectors at the docks to assure that the list of negro evacuees was as accurate as possible, but that was as far as he was willing to go.

After an afternoon of arguing the two sides sat down to dinner with one another, prepared by Samuel Fraunces of Fraunces Tavern. Then the American joined the British aboard ship for drinks and more informal discussions.

Washington did send inspectors to monitor the black people being evacuated. As he expected, many of the former slaves gave false names and lied about their owners or status before the war. In the end, Carleton did not return any refugees to slavery and no owner ever received any compensation for their losses.

Release of Prisoners

The issue of exchanging prisoners turned out to be a complicated one. The Huddy-Asgill Affair only ended in late 1782, when Captain Asgill was finally permitted his release. Tensions only seemed to ease once both sides accepted that the peace treaty really was bringing the war to an end.

Even after that, at one point the Americans considered not returning their British prisoners in protest of Carleton not returning their slaves. Cooler heads prevailed, however, and the Americans agreed to the return.

Even so, collecting the thousands of prisoners that had been spread out among inland towns proved difficult. Many British officers who had received parole had to be called back. Many Hessian prisoners had opted to remain in America. Some of them had opted to join the Continental Army or repay a debt while working at a civilian job in order to obtain American citizenship. These all had to be figured out. Then there was the process of finding food and supplies to march the prisoner armies from Virginia to New York.

The Americans had been prepared to turn over their prisoners by April of 1783, but because they had to march the prisoners to New York, the final exchange did not take place until late May.

For the British, release of prisoners also came with some difficulty. Carleton began releasing some of his sickliest prisoners in early 1782, and released all of his army prisoners by the end of the year. After his corruption hearings turned up the fact that agents were selling the food that was meant for the American prisoners, Carleton also began investigating the conditions of the naval prisoners held on prison ships. These fell under the jurisdiction of the Navy. Despite this, Carleton received permission from Admiral Digby to inspect the ships. When he found the deplorable conditions, he prevailed on the Admiral to allow the prisoners to be removed from ships during the hottest days of the summer and put on Blackwell Island in the East River, what we today call Roosevelt Island. Over the winter, Carleton authorized the purchase of clothing to keep these prisoners warm.

Britain also had hundreds of American sailors in British prisons. Benjamin Franklin helped coordinate their release and repatriation to America. By July, 1783, Washington wrote to Secretary of War Benjamin Lincoln that the last American held prisoners, a group of Hessians, were on their way back to New York. All prisoners on both sides, who had survived the war were either home or on their way.

Loyalists

Loyalists continue to stream into New York seeking transportation to anywhere more friendly. When the British evacuated Westchester County about a week after the Tappan Conference in May, violence against the loyalist civilians who remained behind spiked. Washington had to send in Continental soldiers to restore order.

Many loyalists still held out hope for some sort of compromise that would allow them to remain in America. Even as late as the summer of 1783, Judge Smith, who had attended the Tappan Conference with General Carleton, wondered if Washington might still be part of a secret plan to bring about a reunion between Britain and her colonies. Rumors of Congress’ move from Philadelphia to Princeton gave some loyalists hope of a compromise since Congress was finally separated from the French Minister Luzerne, who remained in Philadelphia. Many loyalists thought that the patriots were held in thrall by the French and that separating them might lead to a compromise. These notions seemed to be based more on some desperate hope than on any reality.

Loyalist refugees streaming into New York during 1783, should have been a much better indicator of what awaited New York loyalists who did not leave with the British Army. Pamphlets also entered the city threatening horrors and vengeance on any loyalists who remained behind.

Not everyone, of course, thought this way. Colonel Alexander Hamilton visited New York City in August, looking forward to setting up a law practice there. While there, he met with General Carleton, expressing concern that almost all New York’s merchants were fleeing the city. This would make rebuilding New York’s economy much more difficult. Carleton, unwilling to provide Hamilton with much information, did not respond, but simply shrugged his shoulders.

In the fall of 1782, British intelligence captured Thomas Poole in New York. He had in his possession incriminating documents and confessed to being a spy. His mission had been to collect information on Americans who were collaborating with the British in order to take action against them after the British left.

This put Carleton in a difficult situation. Hanging an American spy just as they were getting the Huddy-Asgill affair behind them could have caused all sorts of problems. At the same time, Carleton did not want Poole being able to report back to New York officials on collaborators who might end up remaining behind.

Instead, Carleton shipped him off to Bermuda. He sent along a letter to the governor letting him know that Poole was a spy. He claimed he was not executed for reasons of “humanity” but that he had knowledge that would endanger other loyalists. Poole could not be held in prison since he had become “very decrepit” from his imprisonment in New York. He asked that Poole be held on Bermuda or some other island, where he could not return to America.

Six months later, in May 1783, Poole arrived back in New York. Bermuda’s governor said he had recovered his health and that Poole should be exchanged along with other prisoners. Once again, Carleton returned Poole to Bermuda. He sent another note saying essentially, look, we need to keep this guy out of America as he is a direct threat to many loyalists. He’s not a prisoner of war and not subject to any exchanges. We need to keep him there until things cool off.

This set up a series of back and forth letters. The governor of Bermuda essentially saying that if he’s a prisoner, he should be exchanged. If he’s not a prisoner, we have no right to hold him. In the end, Poole went to South Carolina. It’s not clear if he came back to New York later, but he apparently was not a problem for Carleton again after that.

Throughout the summer and fall of 1783, both Washington and the Continental Congress repeatedly pushed Carleton for a final evacuation date. Carleton, however, would not leave until he had found refuge for all the loyalists, many of whom were still entering New York. Although Carleton wanted to go home as much as anyone, he could not bear the idea of loyalists suffering the wrath of the patriots if they were left behind.

In the fall, Carleton sent a messenger to London with his thoughts about keeping an army of more than 10,000 regulars and Hessians in New York over the next winter. Before that message could arrive in London, Carleton received a message saying that he needed to evacuate New York right away. He needed to evacuate right away. He could not keep delaying the final evacuation.

Evacuation Day

On November 12, 1783, Carleton wrote to Washington saying that he expected to be able to make the final withdrawal before the end of the month. He would abandon King’s Bridge on November 21, giving the patriots access to Northern Manhattan. He would also relinquish Long Island that same day, holding only the main city, Brooklyn, Paulus Hook and Staten Island. Carleton wrote again a week later, to make sure Washington was coordinating the changeover, and wanted to be assured that the Americans would not allow violence and lawlessness to follow the British withdrawal, as it had in Westchester. Washington wrote back to assure Carleton that he and state officials were prepared to move into the city as soon as the British left.

On November 21, Washington led the Continental Army onto Manhattan for the first time since his retreat in 1776. Since most of the army had already gone home, his Continental Army consisted of about 800 men, accompanied by some New York militia. He took up temporary lodging at a tavern in Harlem, awaiting the final British evacuation.

Four days later, on November 25th, the last British soldiers boarded ships at the pier and pulled away into the harbor. A signal blast of 13 cannons signaled to Washington that his army should advance. Washington marched his army into the city. Riding with Washington was Governor Clinton, with the staff prepared to resume civilian control of the city. Other top civilian leaders marched with the army as well. General Henry Knox was given the honor of leading the march into the city.

Replacing the Flag at NY Battery

The transition took place without any incidents. The only problem for the Americans was that the British had nailed a British flag to the poll at the battery at the southern tip of the island. They had removed the halyard and greased the flagpole in order to prevent the Americans from raising their flag. It took several hours to get someone who could scale the pole and raise the American flag. Soon American flags began to appear all over town.

The British fleet remained in the harbor for nearly a week, awaiting favorable winds. On December 1, Carleton sent a final letter announcing the fleet’s departure the following day. Washington wrote back saying that “[I] sincerely wish that your Excellency, with the Troops under your Orders may have a safe and pleasant passage.”

I wish that I could end on that polite and gentlemanly note. But as the fleet sailed out over the next few days, boisterous New Yorkers on Staten Island fired their guns into the air and made some not so polite hand gestures at the departing fleet. In response a British warship fired a cannonball at the shore, causing the spectators to disperse. With that final parting shot, the British sailed from New York, ending their seven year occupation.

The war was really over.

Next week, with its mission accomplished, the last of the Continental Army disbands once and for all.

- - -

Next Episode 331 End of the Continental Army

Previous Episode 329 Signing the Peace Treaty

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Sunday, September 29, 2024

ARP329 Signing the Peace Treaty

Back in Episode 320, we covered the preliminary peace agreement that the delegations from Britain and the US reached in the fall of 1782. That preliminary agreement resulted in a cessation of hostilities and great celebration. But the war would not actually be over until that preliminary agreement became a final treaty.

One of the big impediments to the final treaty was the fact that the US could not sign off on a final peace until Britain and France also did so. France could not sign off on a peace until Spain also agreed to a peace with Britain.

Gibraltar

Spain had entered the war back in 1779 with the primary goal of taking back Gibraltar. Spain had ceded Gibraltar to Britain in 1713, as part of an agreement to get Britain to end its role in the War of Spanish Succession. Ever since then, Spain had been trying to get back this small rocky outcropping at the southern tip of Spain.

Spain and France had been besieging Gibraltar since 1779. While the attacks had greatly damaged the area, the highly defensible position and several successful resupply missions prevented the British garrison from being dislodged. The final push by France and Spain to recapture the rock failed in October, 1782.

Unfinished painting showing US peace delegation

The following month, at the same time Britain was negotiating terms with the Americans, it was also in negotiations with France. Gerard de Rayneval came to London to negotiate directly with Prime Minister Shelburne. France was treaty obligated to help Spain regain control of Gibraltar, so this was critical to any final peace. In these discussions, Shelburne suggested that Britain might consider giving up Gibraltar, if France and Spain could compensate it with other properties. These might include Minorca in the Mediterranean, which France had recently taken from Britain. Shelburne also wanted West Florida, which would give Britain access to the Mississippi River. Britain was also considering several valuable sugar islands in the West Indies.

The two sides worked out a complicated series of land swaps that touched on the Americas, Europe, Africa, and Asia, which would result in a return of Gibraltar to Spain. The French negotiator, Gerard de Rayneval returned to Paris in late November with a preliminary deal in hand. French foreign Minister Vergennes summoned the Spanish Ambassador, Conde de Aranda, to discuss the deal. The men agreed to the terms.

When Gerard de Rayneval returned to Britain with the good news, he learned that Shelburne could not finalize the deal. Shelburne’s own cabinet revolted at the idea of turning over Gibraltar to Spain. The recent heroic defense of Gibraltar had captured the popular mood in London. The only way this was going to work was if Spain and France offered more valuable sugar islands to compensate Britain.

The talks appeared on the verge of collapse, then Spain blinked. The Conde de Aranda told Vergennes he had been authorized to negotiate on letting Britain keep Gibraltar if Spain could get a valuable price of other real estate. If Spain could get both East and West Florida, as well as Minorca, it might be willing to forgo its demand of Gibraltar.

The debates went back and forth into December. By this time, the terms of the peace deal with the Americans were known to all. Prime Minister Shelburne was facing a possible vote of no confidence in Parliament, which could throw all of this work back to square one.

There was also another deadline. Recall a few episodes back that I mentioned that Spain and France were putting together an Armada at Cadiz, led by the Admiral d’Estaing and General Lafayette. This armada planned to sail to recapture Jamaica, expel the British from New York and recapture Canada. The ships were ready to leave port. Once they left, they could not be recalled. Those attacks would pretty much guarantee that the war would continue for at least another year, and that the final treaty terms would be greatly impacted by the success or failure of that mission.

As a result, even if Spain was ultimately agreeable to the deal currently on the table, the lack of a quick answer might be as good as a no. Fortunately, the Spanish Ambassador Aranda approved the deal without demanding to consult with leaders in Madrid.

The powers still quibbled over a few other details, but by January 20, 1783, Britain, France, and Spain all agreed on terms for a final peace. Although the agreement was provisional and had to receive final approval from all governments, that seemed likely.

In Cadiz, the Armada had been scheduled to depart on January 16, but after d’Estaing received word that a peace treaty was imminent, he delayed his departure. After receiving word of the treaty on February 2, d’Estaing shut down the mission.

The Netherlands had largely been left out of the negotiations. With all of its allies agreeing to peace terms, the Dutch had to give the British acceptable terms. The Netherlands agreed to the general cease fire that became effective in January 1783. They would eventually sign a treaty with Britain more than a year later.

Peace Terms

The US received just about everything the Commissioners wanted. Britain acknowledged the US as free, sovereign, and independent states. It recognized the US boundary reaching west to the Mississippi and agreeable boundaries with Canada and Florida. There was also a secret provision, setting the border between Georgia and Florida, depending on where Spain or Britain ultimately claimed Florida. The British army would leave US territory and turn over all land within US borders. Any British property in the US would be forfeited to the US. The treaty also granted Americans fishing rights off the coast of Newfoundland.

Britain received a clause that British creditors would be allowed to pursue lawful debts. The US would not confiscate property in the future from loyalists, but would only “recommend” to the states to provide restitution for property already taken from loyalists.

The Treaty between France and Great Britain permitted France to keep several islands in the West Indies, including St. Lucia and Tobago. France gave up Grenada, the Grenadines, St. Vincent, Dominica, St. Kitts, Nevis, and Montserrat. Britain ceded Minorca and east and west Florida to Spain, but took the islands of Providencia, and the Bahamas, as well as retaining Gibraltar.

Waiting for Approval

With the diplomats having completed their work, they next had to wait for the various governments to confirm the agreements that they had reached. For the American diplomats in Paris, this meant that they had to remain in Europe to finalize the treaty. Even so, the peace agreement seemed so established that Benjamin Franklin considered making a trip to England in the spring of 1783. Six months earlier, such a visit probably would have resulted in his imprisonment in the Tower of London. He ended up not making the trip, but it had nothing to do with any fear from British authorities.

Another of the delegates, Henry Laurens, who actually did serve time as a prisoner in the Tower of London, returned to Britain after the preliminary peace agreement. He wanted to relax and recuperate in Bath.

Franklin occupied himself by returning to printing. He printed a bound copy of all the state constitutions, in French, to be distributed to diplomats and other government officials throughout Europe. He also began working on a treaty of Amity and commerce between the US and Sweden, and started similar initiatives with Denmark and Portugal.

Franklin had been willing to abandon his obligations under the treaty with France, and agreed with the other American delegates to sign a preliminary peace treaty with France. Despite Franklin's willingness to be flexible, John Adams still believed that Franklin was too captivated by French interests. Adams did not let up on his criticisms of Franklin as the delegates waited in France.

Just as the delegation was finalizing its negotiations on the preliminary peace treaty, another rift began to divide Adams and Franklin. Adams wanted to appoint a man named Edmund Jenings as the secretary to the diplomatic mission in France. Adams introduced Jenings to Henry Laurens, who at first seemed to like the idea, but then quickly grew cool to the idea. Jenings was an American who had been living in Europe during the war and had published a number of pamphlets. Several of these seemed designed to divide the American peace commissioners.

Meanwhile, Franklin had someone else in mind to be secretary. He wanted his grandson, William Temple Franklin. Now 21 years old, Temple had been serving as his grandfather’s personal secretary for seven years. He spoke French and had developed his own relationships in the French Court at Versailles.

Franklin wrote to Congress’ Secretary for Foreign Affairs, recommending Temple for the position, and suggesting that if Temple did not get the job, that Franklin was considering leaving his post to take his grandson on a grand tour of Europe.

Having completed the preliminary treaty, Franklin decided on his own to make Temple the secretary of the Peace Commission near the end of 1782. Franklin got John Jay to agree to the appointment, but did not even bother to ask, or even notify John Adams.

When he found out, Adams was livid. It wasn’t just that Franklin was handing out a lucrative position to a family member. After all, John Quincy Adams was serving at the time as an aide to the American delegation in Russia, thanks to his father’s efforts. Edmund Jenings, the man Adams wanted for secretary, was a cousin of his wife Abigail.

Adams disliked Temple for many of the same reasons that he disliked Temple’s grandfather. The puritanical New Englander was disgusted by the lavish lifestyle, punctuated by drinking and womanizing, in which the Franklins engaged. Adams’ mindset was probably not helped by the fact that he was trying to fight a battle via correspondence to Massachusetts, trying to convince his daughter Nabby not to marry an aggressive suiter.

Adams was also open to the criticisms levied by Arthur and William Lee. These men had opposed Franklin for years, and levied all sorts of accusations. They turned their wrath on Temple. Arthur Lee called Temple a “young insignificant boy” implying that only his Grandfather’s status gave him any chance at a government position. William Lee referred to Temple as a bastard, twice over, referring to his illegitimate birth, as well as his father’s. Adams himself wrote in a letter regarding Franklin: “His whole Life has been one continued Insult to good Manners and to Decency.”

The fact that Temple’s father was an infamous Tory, by this time living in London, and the fact that Temple had only lived in America for 18 months of his life, led to concerns about whether he had America’s true interests at heart.

Adams had already expressed concerns that Benjamin Franklin had seemed too pro-French. In several letters to America, Adams expressed the belief that France had actually delayed a peace with Britain by several years and that Franklin was a pawn that Vergennes was using to promote French interests. Since Temple spoke fluent French and had served in Versailles, Adams believed that Temple also had become more French than American.

Adams also came to believe that Franklin was setting up Temple to replace his grandfather on the peace commission in France so that Franklin could take a position as Ambassador to Britain in the Court of St. James. In truth, Franklin had zero interest in serving in London. Adams, however, did want that position and worried that Franklin was a rival.

When Temple met with Adams in January 1783, to request that Adams sign a document approving his appointment as secretary retroactive to the previous October, Adams exploded. Temple already had the commission signed by the other three commissioners. Franklin had written the document. Jay apparently signed some time in October, when the commission was finalizing the preliminary treaty and Franklin was sick in bed. Temple was the active courier for Franklin during this time. Henry Laurens did not arrive in France until late November, and returned to Britain in January. He signed the commission just before crossing the channel, in hopes of spending some time relaxing at Bath.

After receiving Laurens’ signature, Temple went to see Adams. Because Adams had originally been appointed the sole peace commissioner, he considered himself the head of the delegation and thought it an effrontery that Franklin had gotten all the other commissioners to agree to the appointment without even discussing the matter with Adams. Temple used his best efforts with humility and respect to win over Adams, but nothing seemed to work. Since Temple had the approval of three of the four commissioners, he continued to serve as secretary. Adams eventually came around and signed the document nine months later, in September, 1783.

Debating Ratification

The Peace Commissioners had little to do but bicker with each other for months after sending the preliminary treaty to Congress in November, 1782. In early 1783, Congress was still debating whether to give the commissioners more latitude in negotiating a treaty without France when the preliminary treaty arrived.

The pro-French delegates in Congress were outraged by the fact that the commissioner had negotiated a separate peace with Britain, cutting France out of the negotiations. They saw this as a betrayal of the French alliance and something that would hurt the US in international relations. There was particularly intense debate about a secret clause that set a border between the US and Florida if Britain held Florida, but a different border if Spain ultimately took control of Florida.

Of course, the delegates in favor of giving the delegates more latitude were very pleased with the favorable terms that the treaty gave to the US, based on those in France taking the initiative. Congress continued to debate before receiving word in March, 1783 that France and Britain had also come to terms on a preliminary treaty. At that point, the matter seemed settled.

Secretary Livingston finally wrote a response to the delegates in late March, congratulating them on the provisions in the preliminary treaty but also criticizing them for negotiating without France’s involvement. In April, he confirmed to the Commissioners that Congress had ratified the preliminary treaty. By May, Livingston was complaining that he had not heard any further progress on the final treaty.

David Hartley

There was reason for concern. At the end of March, the Shelburne Ministry in London fell after only eight months. In April, a coalition under Charles James Fox and Lord North took control of Parliament. The new Prime Minister was William Cavendish-Bentinck, the Duke of Portland, but everyone knew that Fox and North were the real powers in Parliament. The two factions could not have been more different. Fox’s liberal coalition has supported American independence for years. North, of course, continued the war longer than almost anyone else wanted and held the very conservative positions that King George had espoused. The two factions disagreed on just about any issue, and were together only because of their shared hatred of Shelburne as Prime Minister.

For the Americans, there was real cause for concern. Without a final treaty, Britain could back out of the preliminary agreement and resume the war. It did not help that North pushed for a vote condemning the peace treaty that the Shelburne government had already negotiated and approved.

The new government sent David Hartley to negotiate the final terms of a treaty. Although Hartley was a liberal in Parliament, and had been outspoken for years about ending the war with the colonies, he was also a close ally of Lord North and had voted against the Shelburne Peace Plan in Parliament.

The Commissioners were relieved when Hartley revealed that Britain was still willing to sign a final treaty largely based on the terms spelled out in the preliminary treaty. Franklin had know Hartley since the 1760’s and the two men got along quite well. Hartley and the Commissioners debated a few more issues, mostly related to trade. The Commissioners agreed that US ports would be open to British trade following the final evacuation of the British Army from New York. Much of their discussion at this time was the details on getting the British Army evacuated.

After a few weeks, Hartley sent the terms to London for final approval. He and the delegates then waited most of the summer with no word from the government. In fairness the coalition was a mess. The King, who loathed Fox, refused to cooperate with the coalition in any way. The two factions agreed on very little. It was a matter of debate whether this divided government would even survive much longer.

After nearly two months of waiting for a decision from London, Hartley decided on his own to just finalize the official treaty. Although the two sides had discussed a few changes, Hartley proposed they simply sign a final treaty based on the preliminary one without any substantive changes. He could at least justify that without any further word from London.

The Signing

The parties agreed to meet on September 3 for the formal signing. Franklin, Jay, and Temple rode to Paris where Adams joined them. Laurens, still in Britain, did not participate. The secretaries reviewed four copies of the treaty. The only substantive changes were an added provision spelling out a ratification process, and the removal of the provision related to the Florida border since Spain by this time had set the border based on its own treaty with Britain.

Treaty of Paris Signatures

At 10:30, the three delegates signed and affixed their seals to the treaty, as did Hartley, acting on behalf of the King. Hartley also assured the commissioners that they would continue to negotiate a treaty on trade once this peace treaty had been resolved.

Traditionally, the two countries exchanged gifts following a treaty. The King had suggested a cash gift. Hartley discussed the matter, offering a £500 cash gift to each of the four delegates. Since the delegates had nothing to give in return and were concerned about insulting the king by refusing his gift, there was some discussion about the matter. In the end, no gifts were exchanged and the matter was just dropped.

The commissioners sent a copy of the treaty to Versailles, where Vergennes signed the peace treaty, along with the Spanish Ambassador that same day, ending the war with Britain. The Dutch had reached a preliminary treaty with Britain the day before, but that final treaty would not be finalized for several more months. That afternoon, Vergennes hosted a dinner for everyone involved in the treaties. There were 31 people who attended.

Following the event, Franklin commented to Jay that this treaty would probably be the most notable achievement for which they would be remembered. He then referenced the Bible “blessed are the peacemakers. Jay responded that he would be proud of his role. Adams, ever the pessimist, worried that the treaty could have been better and hoped they would not see another war in their lifetimes.

As far as all the government leaders were concerned though, the war was over and it was time to start living in the new peace.

Next week: The British Army Evacuates New York.

- - -

Next Episode 330 British Evacuation New York

Previous Episode 328 Cuddalore, The Last Battle

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American Revolution Podcast

Sunday, October 20, 2024

ARP331 Washington Goes Home

Washington’s Farewell

Dutch Ambassador

Washington in New York

Move to Maryland

Washington Resigns

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Sunday, October 13, 2024

ARP330 Evacuation of New York

Carleton’s Changing Mission

Tappan Conference

Release of Prisoners

Loyalists

Evacuation Day

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Sunday, September 29, 2024

ARP329 Signing the Peace Treaty

Gibraltar

Peace Terms

Waiting for Approval

Debating Ratification

David Hartley

The Signing

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Further Reading

Websites

Free eBooks
(from archive.org unless noted)

Books Worth Buying
(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*

Sunday, October 20, 2024

ARP331 Washington Goes Home

Washington’s Farewell

Dutch Ambassador

Washington in New York

Move to Maryland

Washington Resigns

Signup for the AmRev Podcast Mail List

Further Reading

Websites

Free eBooks(from archive.org unless noted)

Books Worth Buying(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*

Sunday, October 13, 2024

ARP330 Evacuation of New York

Carleton’s Changing Mission

Tappan Conference

Release of Prisoners

Loyalists

Evacuation Day

Signup for the AmRev Podcast Mail List

Further Reading

Websites

Free eBooks(from archive.org unless noted)

Books Worth Buying(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*

Sunday, September 29, 2024

ARP329 Signing the Peace Treaty

Gibraltar

Peace Terms

Waiting for Approval

Debating Ratification

David Hartley

The Signing

Signup for the AmRev Podcast Mail List

Further Reading

Websites

Free eBooks (from archive.org unless noted)

Books Worth Buying(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*

Free eBooks
(from archive.org unless noted)

Books Worth Buying
(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*

Free eBooks
(from archive.org unless noted)

Books Worth Buying
(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*

Free eBooks
(from archive.org unless noted)

Books Worth Buying
(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*