In our last episode, we covered Congress’ decision during the Quasi War to authorize a huge provisional army to prepare for an invasion by France. Since that invasion never happened, the army turned out to be a big nothing. The Navy, on the other hand, saw some actual service. This week, we look at the new US Navy and some of its first wartime actions.
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| USS Constellation vs L'Insurgente |
After things began heating up with France, the government renewed efforts to complete the ships in 1797. The USS United States was completed in May, the USS Constellation in September, and the USS Constitution in October. Even though the ships themselves were complete, they were not equipped and did not have a crew. That would take another year. The USS United States was finally ready to set sail in May 1798, weeks after the XYZ affair became public. The other two were ready by mid summer.
Also over the spring and summer of 1798, Congress authorized the conversion and arming of merchant ships for naval use.
Benjamin Stoddert
The looming war with France also focused Congress on the need for better administration of the new Navy. Secretary of War James McHenry hand handled all of the work up until 1798. James Barry, the famous Revolutionary War naval hero who was overseeing the building of the USS United States in Philadelphia, complained about McHenry’s incompetence and lack of attention to the navy. He suggested that the government needed a separate Secretary of the Navy.
Congress held hearings, conferred with McHenry, and agreed with Barry’s assessment that the navy needed its own civilian leader. In May 1798 as the XYZ affair was bringing on war fever, Congress authorized a Secretary of the Navy. President Adams chose Benjamin Stoddert for the job.
At first glance, Stoddert seemed like an odd choice, and was actually the president’s second choice after former Senator George Cabot refused the offer. Stoddert had served in the Continental Army during the Revolution as a cavalry officer. He had served on the Continental Congress’ Board of War for a few years, which is probably where Secretary of State Pickering got to know him. After the war, Stoddert founded a mercantile company operating out of Georgetown. He also founded the Bank of Columbia in 1794.
Despite Stoddert’s lack of naval experience, Pickering recommended Stoddert because as a capable financial administrator. He knew something about ship building and maintenance, and their related costs. He was also a Federalist, which was important to the rest of the cabinet.
Navy’s First Steps
Even before Stoddert took his new position as Secretary, Congress tried to step up naval operations. It authorized the navy to seize armed French vessels off the coast. It approved the purchase of twelve additional ships of up to 22 guns each to supplement the three frigates that were just about ready.
Several cities, acting on their own, began building warships for use in the conflict. Congress authorized the President to accept these ships as loans for use in the war.
By the end of May 1798, the first ship, a converted merchant ship, the Ganges, departed Philadelphia for the first naval operation of the US Navy. Its Captain, Richard Dale had served under John Paul Jones during the Revolution.
On July 7, Captain Stephen Decatur, Sr. with his son serving with him as an aide, scored the first naval victory of the war. Decatur commanded the USS Delaware, a converted merchant ship. His crew captured the French privateer La Croyable, off the coast of New Jersey. They renamed the captured ship USS Retaliation. A few months later, the French would recapture the Retaliation, but the US would take it a second time in 1799.
Also in July, 1798, Adams signed a new law authorizing American ships to go after armed French vessels anywhere, not just off the coast of the US. He signed another act, formally establishing the US Marine Corps on July 11. The following day, Adams granted William Ward Burrows a commission as a major and commandant of the new Marine Corps. Burrows had minimal military experience, serving in the South Carolina militia during the Revolution. He had come to Philadelphia to work as a lawyer after the Revolution.
By the time of his appointment, marines had already enlisted for service aboard ships. The corps consisted of 881 officers and men. Among Burrows’ rules was a ban on any black or mixed race Americans joining the marines.
Privateers, which had been so important during the Revolutionary War, did not play a role in the Quasi War. The Administration never granted letters of marque to go after French merchant ships. The reason for this policy was that the Americans were going after the ships that were threatening American commerce, that is navy ships or French privateers. French merchant ships offered no threat. Unless the two countries actually went to war, the administration considered that off the table.
Without approval to attack merchant ships, American privateers did not go to sea. American merchant ships, however, were free to arm themselves. Many of these armed merchants were able to fend off attacks from privateers or other smaller French vessels.
Early Deployments
France had been permitting French privateers to attack American shipping for some time. It was one of the primary reasons why the Americans began this fight in the first place.
As the Navy was expanding from simple coastal defense, Navy Secretary Stoddert ordered Commodore Barry to take a small fleet down to the West Indies to interdict French privateers.
Barry took his 44 gun ship, the United States, along with the 20 gun Delaware, the 18 gun Herald, and the 14 gun Pickering to sail in the waters around Barbados, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Antigua, in search of French privateers. Barry also carried diplomatic letters for the Spanish Governor at San Juan, seeking the release of captured American sailors.
Barry left Philadelphia at the end of July with only the United States and the Delaware, as the other ships were having problems. A few weeks later, the ships captured a French privateer in the Martinique passage. A few weeks later, they captured a second ship near Puerto Rico.
But that was about it for Barry. Less than two months after he left Philadelphia, he returned on September 21. Barry complained that his ships had rotten provisions, a lack of ballast, and that he did not want to get caught in the hurricane season. He never managed to deliver the letters to San Juan.
The Navy also spent a fair amount of time escorting merchant ships. Captain Thomas Truxton commanded the 36 gun Constellation, assisted by the 20 gun Baltimore, in the fall of 1798, escorted American convoys from Havana back home.
Also in late fall, the Montezuma, the Norfolk and the Retaliation patrolled around Antigua and Guadalupe. When French frigates recaptured the Retaliation during this patrol, it would be the only American loss of a naval ship during the Quasi War.
Later Deployments
In December, after Barry had time to take care of the problems of his fleet. After hurricane season had passed, he returned to the West Indies, tasked with defending American shipping and patrolling for French privateers. He would operate out of Prince Rupert Bay on the island of Dominica. At the time, the British controlled Dominica, but were happy to have a friendly naval force there focused on attacking their French enemies.
Barry was part of a much larger force. Stoddert deployed pretty much the entire US fleet to the region, 21 ships divided into four squadrons.
Barry’s squadron at Dominica was joined by the George Washington, and the 44 gun Constitution, commanded by Samuel Nicholson, which arrived in January, 1799. Another seven smaller ships rounded out Barry’s squadron at various times over the winter.
American patrols managed to capture or sink a couple more French privateers. Stoddert, however, remained frustrated when Barry failed to police some of the most popular American shipping lanes. Then, in April of 1799, after being there for less than four months, Barry simply packed up and returned the fleet to Philadelphia, citing his own health, the need to refit ships, and to deal with expiring twelve month crew enlistments.
Suddenly, American merchant ships in the West Indies found themselves without any American naval support again. Stoddert had left his captains with ambiguous orders. He had told Barry the mission would last until some time between April and June. Although he tried to send orders extending that, those orders did not arrive before Barry started back to Philadelphia.
The Constellation also headed a squadron around St. Kitts, with four smaller ships. They arrived in January, patrolling the leeward Islands before they also returned home in May, also dealing with expiring enlistments.
Havana also hosted a winter fleet comprised of the 20 gun USS Delaware, with Captain Decatur commanding, along with the USS General Greene and the USS Governor Jay. These ships arrived in December or January, remaining until May.
Several other single ships patrolled different waters in the region, trying to deter attacks on American shipping anywhere. Over the spring and summer of 1799, most of the American ships returned home, leaving only five smaller ships in the region.
These patrols continued on and off through the rest of 1799, 1800, and into 1801. In late 1800, Stoddert tried to push Barry into a desk job, but Barry refused and returned to the West Indies, arriving in January 1801. Since peace talks were almost complete by this time, Barry had orders to remain on the defensive and not go after ships that were not actively attacking American shipping. By the spring of 1801, announcements of a cessation of hostilities allowed the ships to return home for good.
British Interactions
Much of the American success in the West Indies was thanks to British cooperation. The British Navy still dominated the Atlantic Ocean, and kept most of France’s larger navy ships from leaving port in France.
British convoys also regularly permitted American merchant ships to join with their convoys for safe passage to Europe. In early 1798, this was mostly an informal offer of convenience. By the end of 1798 the practice of British ships allowing Americans to join convoys was formalized and extended to voyages into the West Indies. US Navy ships also reciprocated when they could, offering escorts to British merchant ships.
The two navies coordinated on signals so that each side could recognize friendly ships at sea, and avoid needless chases. British ports were opened up to American merchant ships and even permitted the purchase of military supplies.
Britain, however, was not always entirely friendly. British ships, always in need of more sailors, continued to impress Americans into British service. In the fall of 1798 the 20 gun Baltimore, commanded by Captain Isaac Phillips was escorting nine merchant ships from Charleston to Havana.
On November 16, they crossed paths with a British squadron led by Captain John Loring and the 74 gun Carnatic. The British fired a shot across the bow and forced a halt to the convoy.
Captain Phillips, who had rushed to sea without his formal commission, tried to convince Loring that he was an American naval officer. He showed his orders from the Secretary of Navy. Loring took one look and sneered saying “who is Ben Stoddert?” He then informed Loring that he needed crew members and would seize any British subjects aboard the Baltimore.
Given the overwhelming size of the British ship, Philips submitted his muster. The British removed 55 sailors, a little over one-third of the entire crew. Later that day, they returned 50 of the men, keeping only 5. When word of the incident reached Philadelphia, Adams summarily fired Captain Phillips for his submission to the British. Adams then released instructions to all naval captains commanding that they never permit their vessel to be searched or have crew members taken. If confronted by an overwhelming force, they were ordered to fight to the death. They could strike colors if overpowered in battle, but never give up men without giving up the vessel.
The Administration also protested the incident with Britain. The British admiralty, hoping to maintain the naval alliance against France, transferred Captain Loring to another station and gave assurances that this would not be repeated.
This assurance would not be followed. In March of 1799 the HMS Surprise confronted the Ganges and demanded to examine the crew’s papers. Captain Tingey responded, "A public ship carries no protection but her flag. I do not expect to succeed in a contest with you, but I will die at my quarters before a man shall be taken from the ship." The Ganges crew took battle stations. Not wanting to create another incident, the British backed off.
While navy ships were left alone, American merchant vessels were not. An estimated 3000 American merchantmen were serving under duress in the Royal Navy by 1800.
While the impressment issue remained a sore spot, British-US cooperation in protecting merchant ships against French predators remained pretty solid throughout the course of the conflict. It was a matter of mutual self-interest. Both the US and Britain benefitted from the trade and from hurting France’s ability to interdict that trade.
The Battle of Nevis
The Americans never had enough really large ships at this time to engage in traditional European line battles, but there was one pretty significant battle off the coast of Nevis on February 1, 1799, involving Captain Thomas Truxton of the USS Constellation.
Truxton had been raised on Long Island and went to work as a merchant seaman in the 1760s. When the Revolution began, a British ship impressed him and offered him a position as midshipman. While, of course, he had no choice but to serve aboard the ship, he refused the offer of a commission. After being wounded during an action with an American privateer, he was able to get out of British service. He took command of an American privateer, and captured several ships. After the Revolution went back working on commercial shipping.
Truxton was one of the first captains that President George Washington tapped when the US began building its first frigates. Like each of the captains, he oversaw his ship’s construction, selected its crew, and finally went to sea with the USS Constellation just as the Quasi-War began.
Truxton was cruising in the waters near Nevis when he came across the French frigate L’Insurgente, under the command of Captain Michel-Pierre Barreaut. The two ships were pretty evenly matched. The Constellation had 36 guns, compared to 40 on the L’Insurgente, but the Constellation’s guns were mostly larger and could throw more lead at the enemy. The French ship had just over 400 men vs a little over 300 on the Constellation.
The Constellation was spoiling for a fight, while the L’Insurgente seemed to want to avoid one. Captain Truxton approached the vessel, which was flying an American flag. But the US Navy only had two other frigate class ships, and this one didn’t really look like either of them. Truxton flashed British and American signals to get a response, but did not receive one. Instead, the L’Insurgente took down the American flag, raised the French flag and fired a cannon.
Just as the fight was about to begin, a storm blew in. The French captain tried to keep up his sails in the high wind to get away, but ended up bringing down his topmast instead.
As the Americans closed in, the French captain attempted to hail the enemy to avoid a fight, but the Constellation responded with a broadside. The two ships continued to fire on each other. Since the L’Insurgente had smaller cannons, it focused on trying to take out the Americans’ masts and rigging. The Constellation used its 24 pounder cannons to rip holes in the sides of the enemy ship.
After a little over an hour, the L’Insurgente struck its colors and surrendered. The damage was very one sided. The French suffered 29 killed and 41 wounded. The Americans lost two casualties. One sailor lost a foot. The only American sailor killed was killed by his own officer. Lieutenant Andrew Sterett ran him through with his sword after the sailor attempted to abandon his gun during the battle.
Truxton put aboard a crew to take control of the L’Insurgente and began removing French prisoners to the Constellation. Another storm separated the two ships before they could complete the process.
Lieutenant John Rodgers found himself commanding the French ship with only twelve other American crewmen and 170 French prisoners aboard. To prevent the French sailors from retaking the ship, he forced them into the ship’s lower holds and sailed with his skeleton crew to St. Kitts where it caught up with the Constellation. The French ship was sold as a prize with the prize money distributed to the crew. The US Navy bought the ship, repaired it, and christened it the USS Insurgent.
Captain Truxtun was celebrated as a military hero in both America and Britain. London merchants sent him a silver plate to commemorate his victory.
By contrast, the French Captain Barreaut returned to France to face court martial. He was acquitted. Barreaut protested the capture of his ship, arguing that France and the US were not at war. The French governor of Guadeloupe made the same demand for the same reason. When a return was not forthcoming, the governor ordered the seizure of all American ships and property in the colony, and declared that a state of war existed between the United States and Guadeloupe.
The French outrage at one of their ships by hollow. By this time, Captain Barreaut had already seized the USS Retaliation. France had been attacking US shipping for years, yet they seemed really upset that the US had captured one of their frigates.
At the end of his report to Secretary of Navy Stoddert, Truxtun added. "The French captain tells me, I have caused a War with France, if so I am glad of it, for I detest Things being done by Halves".
The naval war would continue through 1801, but I want to cover some other war measures from 1798.
Next week: Congress Passes the Alien Enemies Act of 1798
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Next Episode 406 The Alien Enemies Act (coming soon)
Previous Episode 404 The Quasi-War Army
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Further Reading
Websites
Quasi War https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/quasi-war
Benjamin Stoddert and the Quasi-War with France: https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/1999/february/benjamin-stoddert-and-quasi-war-france
Sechrest, Larry J. “Privately Funded and Built U.S. Warships in the Quasi-War of 1797–1801.” The Independent Review, vol. 12, no. 1, 2007, pp. 101–13. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24562745
Commodore Thomas Truxtun, U. S. Navy https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1932/april/commodore-thomas-truxtun-u-s-navy
Free eBooks
(from archive.org unless noted)
Adams, Charles F. The Life of John Adams, Vol. 2, Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co. 1871.
Allen, Gardner Weld, Our Naval War with France, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1909.
Brown, William L. An examination of the causes and conduct of the present war with France, London: T. Cabell, 1798.
Morse, Jr. John T. John Adams, Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Co. 1884.
Wood, John The History of the Administration of John Adams, Esq., Late President of the United States, New York: Barlas and Ward, 1802.
Books Worth Buying
(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*
DeConde, Alexander The Quasi War: The Politics and Diplomacy of the Undeclared war with France, 1797-1801, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1966.
Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788–1800, Oxford Univ. Press, 1993 (borrow on archive.org).
Kurtz, Stephen G. The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795-1800, Literary Licensing, LLC, 2011.
Leiner, Frederick C. Millions for Defense: The Subscription Warships of 1798, Naval Institute Press, 1999.
Maloney, Linda The Captain from Connecticut: The Life and Naval Times of Isaac Hull Boston: Northeastern Univ. Press, 1986.
McKee, Christopher A Gentlemanly and Honorable Profession: The Creation of the U.S. Naval Officer Corps, 1794-1815, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1991.
Palmer, Michael A. Stoddert's War: Naval Operations During the Quasi-War with France, 1798-1801. Naval Institute Press, 1987 (borrow on archive.org).
Phalen, William J. The First War of United States: The Quasi War with France 1798-1801, Vij Books India, 2018.
Stinchcombe, William The XYZ Affair, Praeger, 1980.
Wood, Gordon S. Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815, Oxford Univ. Press, 2009.
* As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.
