Last week, we covered the first presidential election and ended with Washington riding to New York to be sworn in as president.
New York had become the seat of government in 1785, after Congress had left Philadelphia because they felt the local government did not do enough to protect members from angry soldiers who were being denied their pay and promised benefits. Congress had operated for a time in Princeton and Trenton, but the members found that they really needed a larger town to ensure they had the amenities they needed.
Federal Hall
New York wanted to remain the nation’s capital. The city paid for a massive renovation of its city hall, at the corner of Broad and Wall streets. They designated the building as Federal Hall. Pierre L’Enfant was in charge of the renovations. L’Enfant was a French engineer who had first arrived as a young military officer in 1777. He had served on Washington’s staff at Valley Forge, but later served in combat, being wounded at the Siege of Savannah, and captured at the surrender of Charleston.
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| Washington's Inauguration |
George Washington arrived in New York on April 23, 1789. As he had requested, Madison had found a residence for him. The government rented a house owned by Samuel Osgood, a Massachusetts politician who had settled in New York City. The house contained a residence, as well as a private office where Washington could work, and a public office where he could receive guests.
Washington hired former tavern keeper Samuel Fraunces to manage the house, and its staff of twenty servants, including seven slaves that Washington brought from his home Virginia. Washington held several events at Fraunces Tavern at the end of the war, and got Fraunces to return from retirement to manage his household.
Inauguration
Washington’s inauguration was planned for April 30, only seven days after his arrival.
Even before his election, Washington had begun working on an inauguration address. Washington’s aide, David Humphreys, had been at work at Mount Vernon drafting a lengthy 72 page speech, which included a long list of legislative recommendations.
Washington was not happy with this, and turned to James Madison. In February, before Madison left Virginia, Washington showed him a copy. The two men met at Mount Vernon to discuss the address. The two men agreed to scrap the first draft. Washington provided Madison with an outline of the points he wanted to cover, then left it to Madison to draft a short speech that would cover these points.
Congress was not really sure how the inauguration should work. There was no precedent, and the Constitution simply said that the president needed to take the oath before entering into the execution of his office. Congress appointed a joint committee to decide how to conduct the inauguration.
One April 30, Washington rode in his state provided coach to Federal Hall. Initially, he had ordered a black velvet suit for the occasion. However, after giving it more thought, Washington wore a plain brown suit made of homespun cloth, made domestically. He went up to the second floor balcony. Since there were no federal judges yet, Robert Livingston, the Chancellor of New York, administered the oath on the balcony of the second floor of Federal Hall, as members of Congress and the public witnessed it. An estimated 10,000 people packed the streets around Federal Hall, hoping to witness the event. The local Masonic temple lent a bible, on which the president placed his right hand before taking the oath.
There are many details missing from the primary accounts of the inauguration. For example, we don’t know if Washington actually said the oath, or whether it was read to him in the firm of a question and he simply responded in the affirmative. None of the accounts at the time noted that he added the words “so help me God” upon completing the oath. The first account that has him uttering those words is in a biography written by George Washington Irving 65 years later. There is some reason to believe it was used since Congress did add the “so help me god” to the oath taken by judges in the act passed in 1789, so there can at least be some inference that it would be a common usage at that time.
Following the oath, several accounts say that Livingston proclaimed “Long Live George Washington, President of the United States” followed by the firing of 13 cannons. After that, the president read the inaugural address that Madison had written. Some accounts say he read it on the balcony. Others say that he moved inside and delivered it from the Senate chamber. Most accounts say that Washington was nervous, that he mumbled much of the speech, and that few people understood it. However, it was printed in newspapers after the event.
Washington essentially said that the people had summoned him, and that his love of country obligated him to accept the position, despite his “incapacity as well as disinclination” for the job. He called on “that Almighty Being who rules over the universe” to provide the people with a government that could protect their “liberties and happiness.”
He went on to note that the Constitution said the president should recommend to congress “such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.” In his first draft of the speech Washington had included a whole laundry list of such measures, which probably would have taken him hours to read. Instead, in the speech he gave, which lasted only about ten minutes, he called on Congress to do their best to create the new government with a sense of patriotism, and to avoid “local prejudices or attachments, no separate views nor party animosities”.
He also called on Congress to offer him no pay. Instead, as when he commanded the army, he requested only that Congress pay his expenses. This is not what happened. Congress insisted on pay. But we'll get into that in future episodes. He concluded his speech:
Having thus imparted to you my sentiments as they have been awakened by the occasion which brings us together, I shall take my present leave; but not without resorting once more to the benign Parent of the Human Race in humble supplication that, since He has been pleased to favor the American people with opportunities for deliberating in perfect tranquility, and dispositions for deciding with unparalleled unanimity on a form of government for the security of their union and the advancement of their happiness, so His divine blessing may be equally conspicuous in the enlarged views, the temperate consultations, and the wise measures on which the success of this Government must depend.
Following the inauguration, Washington and the members of Congress, walked down Broadway to St. Paul’s Chapel for a special service. That evening, the city was covered with lanterns, in the streets, in building windows, and on ships in the harbor. The public enjoyed a display of fireworks. Some accounts say Washington enjoyed the display from the home of the Spanish Minister to the US, along with Robert Livingston, Henry Knox, and David Humphreys. The streets remained so crowded that Washington had to walk back to his home at around 10:00 PM. No carriage could pass through the streets with all the people still filling them.
There was no inaugural ball that night. There was one a week later, on May 7. Washington attended. Martha had not arrived yet, so Washington danced with many of the prominent young women in attendance.
Presidential Title
It would take months for Washington to get his cabinet appointed and in place. In the first few critical months of his presidency, Washington and Vice President Adams, pretty much made up the entire executive branch. Washington relied heavily on Madison during this time. Some historians characterize Madison as acting as a prime minister. He was certainly the key connection between the legislative and executive branches during these first months.
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| Inauguration Mural from US Capitol |
Vice President John Adams, perhaps the result of having spent many years at the Court of St. James in London after the war, advocated for showing more ostentation to secure the respect of the new government. He rented Richmond Hill, a large mansion along the river, and rode in a fancy coach to Federal Hall each day to preside over the Senate. He wore expensive suits and a powdered wig. Adams suggested that the president’s title should be “His Highness, the President of the United States of America and Protector of their Liberties.”
Washington completely disagreed with this approach. Several accounts note that Washington began mocking Adams’ public displays. Similarly, others began referring to Adams as “His Rotundity” or “The Duke of Braintree.”
The House of Representatives, probably at the suggestion of Madison, came up with a much simpler title “George Washington, President of the United States.” That simple title appealed to Washington, and was the one that stuck. It took about two weeks for Congress to settle that matter on March 14. Of course that wasn’t the only matter Congress was considering during that time, but it was a lengthy process to decide on a title.
Washington focused on the smallest details of social interactions, as well as his interactions with Congress. Around this time, while discussing how he should address the House of Representatives, he wrote to Madison. “As the first of everything, in our situation will serve to establish a Precedent, it is devoutly wished on my part, that these precedents may be fixed on true principles.”
Hamilton suggested that the president remain available, but aloof, which probably fit well with Washington’s personality. Hamilton recommended that the president hold weekly levees which would be short. He also suggested small dinners with six to eight visitors, again, with the president not remaining at the table for too long. Hamilton also suggested that the president make himself available to Senators, but not Representatives.
Department of War
The first federal department to be created was the war department. The government had inherited a small army from the government under the Articles of Confederation.
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| Federal Hall in 1789 |
A year later in 1784, the Confederation approved the establishment of the First American Regiment, which would be responsible primarily for frontier issues involving conflicts with the Indians. The new regiment brought the size of the army up to around 700 men, and needed a new commander. With so many recent officers having left the army after the war, one would think Congress could choose a wise and experienced leader.
Instead they chose Josiah Harmar. You’ve probably never heard of Harmar before. He seemed to have been a reasonably capable officer who rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel during the war. He also served as the private secretary to Thomas Mifflin when Mifflin was President of the Continental Congress. President Mifflin pushed for his secretary, Harmar, to become its commander when they created the new regiment in 1784.
Harmar moved most of the regiment out to Marietta, who helped with first settlement in the Northwest territory. Harmar received a brevet to brigadier general, although he was still paid as a lieutenant colonel.
In 1785, the Confederation Congress appointed former General Henry Knox to run it the department of war. Knox became the civilian leader who maintained the army for Congress. The department consisted of himself and a couple of clerks. Eventually, under Knox the War Department would grow to a staff of twelve.
This was the army that the new federal government inherited, and they kept it pretty much as is. Washington had worked closely with Knox during the war. After Congress established the new War Department in August of 1789, Washington nominated Knox to serve in that role, doing pretty much what he had been doing for the last four years.
Department of Treasury
Congress also established the Department of Treasury a few weeks later. This was probably the most critical department with the most urgent need since the government needed to start collecting tariffs so that it had money to pay for the new government, and also pay for all the war debts that were already overdue.
There is some debate, but most sources indicate that Washington, during his stop in Philadelphia on his way to New York, asked Robert Morris to serve as Secretary of the Treasury. Morris, of course, had carried the Continental Congress through the most difficult financial times of the war. He had served as Superintendent of Finance until 1784, when he retired from public service. During the war, he had floated much of the government loans backed by his personal credit. Following the war, he was dealing with all sorts of financial problems as a result.
When Washington approached him about becoming Secretary of Treasury, Morris refused. He had already been appointed one of Pennsylvania’s first US Senators. He was willing to do that, but not take on the responsibility of building a whole new financial system for the new government. Instead, Morris suggested that Washington consider Alexander Hamilton for the job. Of course, Washington knew Hamilton better than Morris did, and probably already had him in mind. But Morris was the most obvious choice for the job based on experience that Washington probably felt obligated to offer him the position. In any event, Washington did not press the matter with Morris, and offered Secretary of Treasury to Hamilton.
Hamilton had been active politically in New York politics and also in the effort to get Washington elected as president. But he did not run for any elected office in New York or the new federal government at this time. Like Morris, he was focused on making money and improving his financial situation as an attorney. That said, he had been such a strong advocate for building a stronger federal financial system that he accepted the offer to serve. He eagerly accepted the appointment. He became the first Secretary of the Treasury in September.
The Treasury department quickly became larger than all the others combined, with 39 employees. Many of these were deployed as collectors of customs duties in various ports.
Foreign Affairs
Congress also created a Department of foreign affairs. Under the Articles of Confederation, John Jay had been handling this position. Jay, of course, had been a key negotiator of the peace treaty that ended the war, and had also negotiated several treaties since then. He was controversial for some of those treaties, but probably could have had the job if he wanted it. Instead, Jay told Washington he would rather get an appointment to the Supreme court as Chief Justice. The other top diplomat from the Confederation era was John Adams, who was now Vice President and not available for other appointments. Benjamin Franklin was too old and infirm at this time, so the next person with the most diplomatic credentials was Thomas Jefferson, who was still serving as minister to France.
James Madison pushed hard for Thomas Jefferson’s appointment, and acted as a go-between to see if Jefferson was interested in the job. Jefferson actually preferred to remain as minister to France. He said the job as Secretary was more administrative than diplomatic; and that was not something for which he was well suited. Madison pushed him to take the job. Washington told him that there was no person better suited to the job than Jefferson. With that pressure, Jefferson seemed to tacitly agree.
Jefferson returned to America in the fall of 1789. It was only after he arrived in Virginia that he received word that Washington had already nominated him and that the Senate had confirmed his nomination. Publicly, Jefferson expressed surprise and expressed concerns about serving. But he had to have some idea that this would happen, given his correspondence with Madison.
Jefferson did not agree to accept the appointment publicly until February, 1790 and did not arrive in New York for his swearing in until March. Until then, John Jay had continued acting on foreign affairs, with unofficial assistance from Madison and Hamilton. Once Jefferson took the position the department grew to include five employees.
Attorney General
Finally, Congress created the office of Attorney General. Unlike the other offices, this had no department to go with it. This was considered to be a part time gig. The Attorney General served as a legal advisor to the President and others in the government, and did not have a department associated with it, and paid less than half of what the other departments heads were paid.
Washington chose Edmund Randolph for the position. Randolph had been Governor of Virginia, and led the Virginia delegation to the Constitutional Convention. Washington had also retained Randolph’s legal services in the past for business matters.
With that appointment, the first cabinet was complete.
Next week, we will cover the establishment of the court system.
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Next Episode 360 Judiciary Act of 1789 (coming soon)
Previous Episode 358 Presidential Election of 1788-1789
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Further Reading
Websites
Washington’s Inaugural Address: https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/president-george-washingtons-first-inaugural-speech
George Washington Inaugural Bible: https://www.nps.gov/feha/learn/historyculture/george-washington-inaugural-bible.htm
“From George Washington to James Madison, 5 May 1789,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-02-02-0157
Documentary History of the First Federal Congress https://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/default.xqy?keys=FFCP-print&mode=TOCPresident Washington's Inauguration in New York City https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-first-president/inauguration/new-york
Presidential Inauguration in History: https://clintonwhitehouse5.archives.gov/WH/Family/html/inauguration_history.html
President George Washington: https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/president-george-washington
Washington’s Inaugural Address: https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/president-george-washingtons-first-inaugural-speech
George Washington Inaugural Bible: https://www.nps.gov/feha/learn/historyculture/george-washington-inaugural-bible.htm
“From George Washington to James Madison, 5 May 1789,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-02-02-0157
President Washington's Inauguration in New York City https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-first-president/inauguration/new-york
Presidential Inauguration in History: https://clintonwhitehouse5.archives.gov/WH/Family/html/inauguration_history.html
President George Washington: https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/president-george-washington
Free eBooks
(from archive.org unless noted)
Documentary History of the Constitution of the United States of America, Vol 2, Washington: Dept. of State, 1894.
Centennial Celebration of the Inauguration of George Washington, Freemasons. Grand Lodge of Louisiana, 1889.
Inaugural Speeches of Washington, Adams, and Jefferson, H. Sprague, 1802.
Brant, Irving James Madison: Father of the Constitution, 1787-1800. Bobbs-Merrill Co. 1950 (borrow only).
Maclay, William Sketches of Debate in the First Senate of the United States, in 1789-90-91, Harrisburg: Lane S. Hart, 1880.
Renwick, Henry B. Lives of John Jay and Alexander Hamilton, 1817-1895, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1840.
Documentary History of the Constitution of the United States of America, Vol 2, Washington: Dept. of State, 1894.
Centennial Celebration of the Inauguration of George Washington, Freemasons. Grand Lodge of Louisiana, 1889.
Inaugural Speeches of Washington, Adams, and Jefferson, H. Sprague, 1802.
Brant, Irving James Madison: Father of the Constitution, 1787-1800. Bobbs-Merrill Co. 1950 (borrow only).
Maclay, William Sketches of Debate in the First Senate of the United States, in 1789-90-91, Harrisburg: Lane S. Hart, 1880.
Renwick, Henry B. Lives of John Jay and Alexander Hamilton, 1817-1895, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1840.
Books Worth Buying
(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*
Bradford, M.E. Original Intentions: on the Making and Ratification of the United States Constitution, Univ. of GA Press, 1993 (borrow on archive.org).
Chernow, Ron Alexander Hamilton, Penguin Press, 2004.
Chernow, Ron Washington: A Life, Penguin Books, 2011.
Chervinsky, Lindsay M. The Cabinet: George Washington and the Creation of an American Institution, Harvard Univ. Press, 2020.
Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788–1800, Oxford Univ. Press, 1993.
Ellis, Joseph J. His Excellency: George Washington, Knopf, 2004.
Ellis, Joseph J. The Quartet: Orchestrating the Second American Revolution 1783-1789, Alfred A. Knopf, 2015.
Leibiger, Stuart (ed) A Companion to James Madison and James Monroe, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
McDonald, Forrest The Presidency of George Washington, Univ. of Kansas Press, 1974 (borrow on archive.org).
Morris, Richard B. Witnesses at the Creation: Hamilton, Madison, Jay and the Constitution, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1985.
Rossiter, Clinton Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution, Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. 1964 (borrow on archive.org).
Slonim, Shlomo Forging a new Nation, 1787-1791, Palgrave Macmillan 2017.
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