Last week we covered the signing of the peace treaty ending the war. The British still had an army occupying New York in the fall of 1783. Both sides needed to figure out how to disentangle the two armies and implement the peace treaty.
Carleton’s Changing Mission
General Guy Carleton had become the commander of forces in North America in early 1782, after London received word of the British surrender at Yorktown and wanted to replace General Henry Clinton. Carleton received his assignment just weeks before the fall of the North Government in London. The new government under Lord Shelburne took power before he left and continued to support his taking command of North America. Carleton and Admiral Robert Digby were named joint peace commissioners. Their assignment was to end the war in America, but trying to find some way to “reconcile and reunite” Great Britain with its colonies.
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| Evacuation Day, Washington's Entry |
The task of removing the army was not an easy one. He had roughly 30,000 British and Hessian soldiers, including thousands of prisoners still held by the Americans. Carleton also had nearly an equal number of loyalist civilians who wanted to leave with the army. Carleton had to remove everyone, while avoiding the risk of an enemy attack before the withdrawal was complete.
Through much of 1783, Carleton managed the process of removing soldiers and loyalists from New York. He made little progress since the numbers of loyalists seeking refuge in the city, and the return of British and Hessian prisoners, often more than made up for those he was able to ship out of the city. Many of these people were forced to live in tents on Long Island, awaiting an opportunity to leave. An important factor in how fast people could leave the city was the availability of ships.
Carleton set up an Office of Superintendent of Exports and Imports to manage the process. He could not get a good answer as to how many refugees many locations could handle. For example, Carleton had to send agents to Nova Scotia to assess things like timber reserves, arable land, and availability of water to get a better idea of how many refugees he could send there, that could be settled with the existing resources.
In another instance, the general appointed three loyalist colonels, Edward Winslow, Isaac Brown, and Stephen Delancey to serve as agents for more than five thousand loyalist soldiers who were to be settled in New Brunswick. These refugees would create entire new communities out of almost nothing.
Refugees, of course, were free to go wherever they could get transport. Many moved to places like Bermuda, Nassau, the Bahamas, as well as England itself.
As part of this process, Carleton also had to deal with a problem of corruption. Administrators, both civilian and military, expected kickbacks for just about anything. British guards still holding American prisoners regularly took meager food requisitions and sold them to others, allowing prisoners to starve. The prices of nearly everything the army purchases were double market value, thanks to all the kickbacks that were expected.
Rather than investigate and prosecute all of this, Carleton simply fired or reassigned virtually everyone involved with procurements and expenditures, replacing them with new men. This, of course, led to complications as new administrators had to figure out how to get things done. Carleton also created a board to inspect the financial records, similar to a commission that Carleton had overseen in London a few years before.
This Board of Public Accounts was headed by Colonel Duncan Drummond, who I discussed back in Episode 308. At that time, Drummond had opened up an inquiry into corruption that General Clinton had quashed because it was right after Yorktown and Clinton did not want to send more bad news to London. Drummond got his investigation moving forward under General Carleton. Also on the board was Henry White, a civilian merchant who had provided supplies for the British Army under General Howe, much earlier in the war, as well as another merchant, Hugh Wallace. Rather than sweep this problem under the table like his predecessor, Carleton personally chaired many of these weekly meetings, to get to the bottom of army corruption.
Tappan Conference
In April of 1783, before Washington dismantled his army, he wrote to Carleton about the exchange of prisoners. Washington was willing to return the 6000 soldiers captured at Yorktown if Carleton could provide the ships to transport them. Carleton replied that all his ships were tied up moving men and equipment out of New York, and that the prisoners would have to march from Virginia to New York.
Washington also suggested that they meet to discuss cooperation in the orderly withdrawal of the British Army from New York. Several of Carleton’s advisors thought that such a meeting would be problematic. In earlier meetings, American negotiators had tried to get Britain to pay for the care of the British prisoners in American custody. Carleton's advisors were afraid that this might become an issue at the meeting and that it would hold up the release of the British prisoners.
Carleton overruled his advisors and agreed to the meeting. He took with him a civilian loyalist, Judge William Smith and two military aides. They agreed to meet with Washington at Tappan, where the Americans had hanged Major John Andre less than three years prior. The location was a convenient ride from Washington’s headquarters, and easily accessible up the Hudson River by a British ship. Washington brought with him his secretary, Jonathan Trumbull, as well as New York Governor George Clinton, along with New York’s secretary of state and attorney general to discuss any civilian state issues that were relevant.
The meeting was cordial, but got right down to business. Washington put three issues on the table. He wanted to be assured that the British would return slaves that were under their control, as per the peace treaty. Next, he wanted to come to an agreement on the exact date when British troops would leave New York City. Finally, he requested that the British turn over control of Westchester County and Long Island within the next few days.
Carleton could not really agree to any of these terms. The date of the final evacuation would still be some time away. Clinton was dealing with the issues related to moving thousands of men and equipment. Any schedule was largely dependent on available ships and weather. He assured the Americans that he wanted to leave as quickly as possible and was working to that end. But he could not give them a date certain.
As far as giving up land, Carleton was willing to turn over control of Westchester County. He still needed Long Island where he had thousands of refugees awaiting departure. He could not cram all these people into the city.
The question of slaves was the most contentious. Carleton refused to turn over those who had accepted British offers of freedom in exchange for supporting the crown. Many of these men had served under arms. Many others served in a civilian capacity. He would not return them to slavery. Instead, Carleton noted that he would keep track of those that he evacuated and that the owners could be compensated for their value. This position seemed to be a direct violation of the peace treaty. Carleton agreed to allow American inspectors at the docks to assure that the list of negro evacuees was as accurate as possible, but that was as far as he was willing to go.
After an afternoon of arguing the two sides sat down to dinner with one another, prepared by Samuel Fraunces of Fraunces Tavern. Then the American joined the British aboard ship for drinks and more informal discussions.
Washington did send inspectors to monitor the black people being evacuated. As he expected, many of the former slaves gave false names and lied about their owners or status before the war. In the end, Carleton did not return any refugees to slavery and no owner ever received any compensation for their losses.
Release of Prisoners
The issue of exchanging prisoners turned out to be a complicated one. The Huddy-Asgill Affair only ended in late 1782, when Captain Asgill was finally permitted his release. Tensions only seemed to ease once both sides accepted that the peace treaty really was bringing the war to an end.
Even after that, at one point the Americans considered not returning their British prisoners in protest of Carleton not returning their slaves. Cooler heads prevailed, however, and the Americans agreed to the return.
Even so, collecting the thousands of prisoners that had been spread out among inland towns proved difficult. Many British officers who had received parole had to be called back. Many Hessian prisoners had opted to remain in America. Some of them had opted to join the Continental Army or repay a debt while working at a civilian job in order to obtain American citizenship. These all had to be figured out. Then there was the process of finding food and supplies to march the prisoner armies from Virginia to New York.
The Americans had been prepared to turn over their prisoners by April of 1783, but because they had to march the prisoners to New York, the final exchange did not take place until late May.
For the British, release of prisoners also came with some difficulty. Carleton began releasing some of his sickliest prisoners in early 1782, and released all of his army prisoners by the end of the year. After his corruption hearings turned up the fact that agents were selling the food that was meant for the American prisoners, Carleton also began investigating the conditions of the naval prisoners held on prison ships. These fell under the jurisdiction of the Navy. Despite this, Carleton received permission from Admiral Digby to inspect the ships. When he found the deplorable conditions, he prevailed on the Admiral to allow the prisoners to be removed from ships during the hottest days of the summer and put on Blackwell Island in the East River, what we today call Roosevelt Island. Over the winter, Carleton authorized the purchase of clothing to keep these prisoners warm.
Britain also had hundreds of American sailors in British prisons. Benjamin Franklin helped coordinate their release and repatriation to America. By July, 1783, Washington wrote to Secretary of War Benjamin Lincoln that the last American held prisoners, a group of Hessians, were on their way back to New York. All prisoners on both sides, who had survived the war were either home or on their way.
Loyalists
Loyalists continue to stream into New York seeking transportation to anywhere more friendly. When the British evacuated Westchester County about a week after the Tappan Conference in May, violence against the loyalist civilians who remained behind spiked. Washington had to send in Continental soldiers to restore order.
Many loyalists still held out hope for some sort of compromise that would allow them to remain in America. Even as late as the summer of 1783, Judge Smith, who had attended the Tappan Conference with General Carleton, wondered if Washington might still be part of a secret plan to bring about a reunion between Britain and her colonies. Rumors of Congress’ move from Philadelphia to Princeton gave some loyalists hope of a compromise since Congress was finally separated from the French Minister Luzerne, who remained in Philadelphia. Many loyalists thought that the patriots were held in thrall by the French and that separating them might lead to a compromise. These notions seemed to be based more on some desperate hope than on any reality.
Loyalist refugees streaming into New York during 1783, should have been a much better indicator of what awaited New York loyalists who did not leave with the British Army. Pamphlets also entered the city threatening horrors and vengeance on any loyalists who remained behind.
Not everyone, of course, thought this way. Colonel Alexander Hamilton visited New York City in August, looking forward to setting up a law practice there. While there, he met with General Carleton, expressing concern that almost all New York’s merchants were fleeing the city. This would make rebuilding New York’s economy much more difficult. Carleton, unwilling to provide Hamilton with much information, did not respond, but simply shrugged his shoulders.
In the fall of 1782, British intelligence captured Thomas Poole in New York. He had in his possession incriminating documents and confessed to being a spy. His mission had been to collect information on Americans who were collaborating with the British in order to take action against them after the British left.
This put Carleton in a difficult situation. Hanging an American spy just as they were getting the Huddy-Asgill affair behind them could have caused all sorts of problems. At the same time, Carleton did not want Poole being able to report back to New York officials on collaborators who might end up remaining behind.
Instead, Carleton shipped him off to Bermuda. He sent along a letter to the governor letting him know that Poole was a spy. He claimed he was not executed for reasons of “humanity” but that he had knowledge that would endanger other loyalists. Poole could not be held in prison since he had become “very decrepit” from his imprisonment in New York. He asked that Poole be held on Bermuda or some other island, where he could not return to America.
Six months later, in May 1783, Poole arrived back in New York. Bermuda’s governor said he had recovered his health and that Poole should be exchanged along with other prisoners. Once again, Carleton returned Poole to Bermuda. He sent another note saying essentially, look, we need to keep this guy out of America as he is a direct threat to many loyalists. He’s not a prisoner of war and not subject to any exchanges. We need to keep him there until things cool off.
This set up a series of back and forth letters. The governor of Bermuda essentially saying that if he’s a prisoner, he should be exchanged. If he’s not a prisoner, we have no right to hold him. In the end, Poole went to South Carolina. It’s not clear if he came back to New York later, but he apparently was not a problem for Carleton again after that.
Throughout the summer and fall of 1783, both Washington and the Continental Congress repeatedly pushed Carleton for a final evacuation date. Carleton, however, would not leave until he had found refuge for all the loyalists, many of whom were still entering New York. Although Carleton wanted to go home as much as anyone, he could not bear the idea of loyalists suffering the wrath of the patriots if they were left behind.
In the fall, Carleton sent a messenger to London with his thoughts about keeping an army of more than 10,000 regulars and Hessians in New York over the next winter. Before that message could arrive in London, Carleton received a message saying that he needed to evacuate New York right away. He needed to evacuate right away. He could not keep delaying the final evacuation.
Evacuation Day
On November 12, 1783, Carleton wrote to Washington saying that he expected to be able to make the final withdrawal before the end of the month. He would abandon King’s Bridge on November 21, giving the patriots access to Northern Manhattan. He would also relinquish Long Island that same day, holding only the main city, Brooklyn, Paulus Hook and Staten Island. Carleton wrote again a week later, to make sure Washington was coordinating the changeover, and wanted to be assured that the Americans would not allow violence and lawlessness to follow the British withdrawal, as it had in Westchester. Washington wrote back to assure Carleton that he and state officials were prepared to move into the city as soon as the British left.
On November 21, Washington led the Continental Army onto Manhattan for the first time since his retreat in 1776. Since most of the army had already gone home, his Continental Army consisted of about 800 men, accompanied by some New York militia. He took up temporary lodging at a tavern in Harlem, awaiting the final British evacuation.
Four days later, on November 25th, the last British soldiers boarded ships at the pier and pulled away into the harbor. A signal blast of 13 cannons signaled to Washington that his army should advance. Washington marched his army into the city. Riding with Washington was Governor Clinton, with the staff prepared to resume civilian control of the city. Other top civilian leaders marched with the army as well. General Henry Knox was given the honor of leading the march into the city.
The transition took place without any incidents. The only problem for the Americans was that the British had nailed a British flag to the poll at the battery at the southern tip of the island. They had removed the halyard and greased the flagpole in order to prevent the Americans from raising their flag. It took several hours to get someone who could scale the pole and raise the American flag. Soon American flags began to appear all over town.
The British fleet remained in the harbor for nearly a week, awaiting favorable winds. On December 1, Carleton sent a final letter announcing the fleet’s departure the following day. Washington wrote back saying that “[I] sincerely wish that your Excellency, with the Troops under your Orders may have a safe and pleasant passage.”
I wish that I could end on that polite and gentlemanly note. But as the fleet sailed out over the next few days, boisterous New Yorkers on Staten Island fired their guns into the air and made some not so polite hand gestures at the departing fleet. In response a British warship fired a cannonball at the shore, causing the spectators to disperse. With that final parting shot, the British sailed from New York, ending their seven year occupation.
The war was really over.
Next week, with its mission accomplished, the last of the Continental Army disbands once and for all.
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Next Episode 332 End of the Continental Army (Available October 20, 2024)
Previous Episode 329 Signing the Peace Treaty
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Further Reading
Websites
A 1783 Thanksgiving: Evacuation Day https://americansystemnow.com/a-1783-thanksgiving-evacuation-day
Evacuation Day & Washington's Farewell https://www.frauncestavernmuseum.org/evacuation-day-washingtons-farewell
ERNST, ROBERT. “A Tory-Eye View of the Evacuation of New York.” New York History, vol. 64, no. 4, 1983, pp. 376–94. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23174025
Bowler, R. A. “THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND BRITISH ARMY ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM.” Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, vol. 58, no. 234, 1980, pp. 66–77. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44223295
“Account of a Conference between Washington and Sir Guy Carleton, 6 May 1783,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-11217
“To George Washington from Guy Carleton, 12 November 1783,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-12054
“To George Washington from Guy Carleton, 19 November 1783,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-12084
“From George Washington to Guy Carleton, 22 November 1783,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-12091
Free eBooks
(from archive.org unless noted)
Riker, James Evacuation Day, 1783, New York: 1883.
Books Worth Buying
(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*
Fleming, Thomas The Perils of Peace: America's Struggle for Survival After Yorktown, Harper Collins, 2007.
Fowler, Willam H. Jr. American Crisis: George Washington and the Dangerous Two Years after Yorktown, 1781-1783, Walker & Co. 2011.
Glickstein, Don After Yorktown: The Final Struggle for American Independence, Westholme Publishing, 2015.
Head, David A Crisis of Peace: George Washington, the Newburgh Conspiracy, and the Fate of the American Revolution, Pegasus Books, 2019.
Reynolds, Paul R. Guy Carleton: A Biography, William Morrow & Co. 1980.
* As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.
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