ARP321 Blue Licks & Fort Henry
In the summer of 1782, most of the country seemed to believe that the war was over, that they were just awaiting final peace terms from Paris.
The terms of a final peace, however, might be impacted by what was happening in America. A matter of particular contention was the land between the Appalachian mountains and the Mississippi River. Many loyalists and their Indian allies hoped to keep the Americans from claiming all of this land. Britain had allocated much of this area to Quebec before the war. They hoped that would remain the case and that the land would remain British after the war.
William Caldwell
One loyalist still fighting for this outcome was Captain William Caldwell. The Irish immigrant had moved to America and settled on the frontier in 1773.
Almost as soon as he arrived, he was introduced to the violence in America when fighting began in what became known as Lord Dunmore’s War. Caldwell received a commission as captain. Caldwell stuck with the royal governor in the effort to hold Norfolk in early 1776, after the revolution had begun. Caldwell was wounded in the fighting. When the loyalists were defeated, he had to be evacuated by sea.
After his recovery, Caldwell traveled to Fort Niagara in upstate New York, where he received a captain’s commission in the loyalist regiment, Butler’s Rangers. There he gained a reputation as an active leader in some of the brutal fighting that took place against the patriots. He also fought alongside, and often led, Indian warriors who backed British interests there. Among other things, Caldwell was part of the 1778 raid, where loyalists and patriots fought over the region that is today northeastern Pennsylvania. He played some role in the Wyoming Valley Massacre, in which captured patriots were tortured and massacred by the loyalists and their Indian allies.
Later that year, Caldwell was part of a group of 50 rangers who were sent west to support Detroit. For the next few years, Caldwell would move to various frontier outposts as needed.
In June of 1782, following the Gnadenhutten Massacre in what is today Ohio, Caldwell combined a small force of Butler’s rangers with Indian allies to confront the patriot expedition led by William Crawford from Fort Pitt into the Ohio territory. This led to the withdrawal of the Americans back to Fort Pitt and the capture and tortuous death of Colonel Crawford and many other American militia. (See Episode 313 for details).
Following that victory in Ohio against Pennsylvania militia, Crawford hoped to extend British control in the west, supported by his Indian allies, by moving south into what is today Kentucky. It’s not clear how large the force was. I’ve read differing accounts that put the number between 200 and 600. I think the truth is pretty close to the middle - probably a force of between 300 and 400 men.
Blue Licks
In August, Caldwell led a force across the Ohio River into Kentucky. He led a company of Butler’s Rangers, along with a larger group of warriors from the Delaware, Huron, Shawnee, and other tribes. Simon Girty, who I have mentioned before as a well known loyalist fighter, was also with Caldwell. The force surrounded an outpost called Bryan’s Station on August 16th. The locals took shelter behind the stockade walls.
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| Daniel Boone at Blue Licks |
The attackers tried to rush the fort, but only took casualties. At the same time, the defenders had to watch as the surrounding force destroyed their crops and livestock. The attackers lost about 30 men, while those inside the fort lost four.
The defenders did manage to get two men out of the fort to ride for militia support. Militia Colonel John Todd gathered a force of about 200 men who rode immediately to break the siege of Bryan’s Station. When Caldwell received word that the militia were on their way, he abandoned the attack on Bryan’s station and withdrew back toward the Ohio River.
The militia in this region were experienced Indian fighters. Many of them had moved to the region in the 1760’s. The Iroquois had sold the land to speculators. The Shawnee, who actually lived there, did not recognize the sale by the Iroquois, leading to years of violent attacks and retaliation.
One of the more notable men was a frontiersman named Daniel Boone. Born in Pennsylvania, his family had moved to North Carolina. Boone had made his way west as a young man. He served as a teamster in the Braddock Campaign in 1755, along with his cousin Daniel Morgan. He returned home to participate in the Cherokee Wars. In the mid 1760’s Boone explored parts of Florida with the intent of moving there. Eventually, however, he moved into what is today Kentucky. Boone made a living as a hunter and trapper. Like everyone else in the region, he regularly fought with Indians, losing several family members. Boone himself was taken prisoner by the Shawnee for a time. He also regularly negotiated with Indians, trying to buy or establish land claims that he could sell to other settlers.
By 1782, Boone was a community leader. He had even represented Kentucky in the Virginia legislature the year before. At any time however, Boone knew there was a chance of an attack. He led an active company of militia that was ready to assemble and fight at any time. Boone’s men heeded the call by Colonel Todd to respond to the attack on Bryan’s Station.
For the rest of that day and the next, Todd’s militia pursued Caldwell’s forces for about 40 miles. That night, August 18, Caldwell’s men camped along the Licking River at a spot called Lower Blue Licks. The area got its name from a local salt lick that attracted deer and buffalo.
At sunrise on the 19th Todd’s militia spotted the enemy on the north side of the river. The militia found a ford and crossed over in pursuit. The enemy was hidden, but believed to hold a position on the high ground above them. Todd divided his force into three columns. Major Hugh McGarry took the center, Colonel Stephen Trigg led the right and Lieutenant Colonel Daniel Boone led the left.
According to some later accounts, Boone advised against crossing the river and moving up the hill into what was likely an ambush. He thought they should await reinforcements. However, Major McGarry advanced with a call for "all non-cowards" to follow him.
The militia climbed the hill until a line of enemy along the crest opened fire from about 40 yards away. Boons left flank pushed forward driving the enemy back. At the same time, the enemy flanked the American right flank, killing many of the militia, including Colonel Trigg and Colonel Todd. The militia on the right flank broke and ran back toward the river. Boone attempted to hold the enemy, but was also forced to withdraw.
At the river, the Indians and rangers attacked the retreating militia, killing many as they attempted to cross the river. The militia managed to reform a line and fire at the pursuing enemy. This caused the enemy to pause their pursuit at the river. The militia withdrew and retreated.
The fight had been short but fierce. It lasted only about 15 minutes, but Boone later reported that the militia took about 50% casualties. Among the dead was his son, Israel Boone.
Fort Henry
A few weeks later, the British carried out a second raid near what is today Wheeling, West Virginia, about 45 miles southwest of Fort Pitt.
While many western forts were little more than reinforced farmhouses, Fort Henry was more than that. Virginia had built the fort in 1774, during Lord Dunmore’s war against the local Indians. It has originally been named Fort Fincastle, in honor of the Governor of Virginia. Lord Dunmore also held the title of Viscount Fincastle. After the Revolution began, patriots renamed the fort after the new Governor of Virginia, Patrick Henry.
Fort Henry was built along the Ohio River. It contained over a half acre of land inside. A wooden outer wall had four blockhouses built at each corner. The blockhouses had towers between eight and seventeen feet high that allowed defenders to fire down on any attackers.
The fort had withstood an attack in 1777, when local militia held off an attacking force of Indian warriors at least twice their size, see Episode 156 for details. Since that attack, the defenders had recovered a cannon from the Monongahela River, possibly dumped there after the Braddock Campaign during the French and Indian War. It was mounted and protected against a land attack from the west.
About 60 yards outside the fort was a large reinforced house that belonged to Ebenezer Zane. Although he was aware of the approaching enemy, most of Zane’s family remained in the house. It was situated in a way that would allow an effective crossfire between the house and Fort Henry. It’s also likely that Zane wanted to remain there to defend his home from being burned by the attackers.
The Zanes
The Zanes were a prominent family in the region. One of Zane’s ancestors, a Quaker named Robert Zane, immigrated to New Jersey in 1675, and had been one of the first settlers to come to Pennsylvania with William Penn.
Ebenezer was born in western Virginia in 1747, and moved to the region in what is today Wheeling in 1769 with his brothers Jonathan and Silas. His brother Andrew and sister Betty joined them a few years later. According to one account, Zane had been taken prisoner by the Wyandot Indian tribe earlier in his life, that he saw this area during a hunting trip with his captors and decided to move there after being freed.
Like most frontier families the Zanes faced occasional Indian attacks. They fought in Lord Dunmore’s war, and were experienced Indian fighters by the time the Revolution began.
The Siege
The British commander in Detroit Arent DePeyster, authorized an assault force to attack Fort Henry in August of 1782. The force included a company of about 50 of Butler’s Rangers, and about 300 Indian warriors. Shortly after the force left Detroit, DePeyster received orders from London that ended all offensive military operations in America. These were the orders from the North Ministry that had been sent out in early 1782, but had taken months to arrive in Detroit. They arrived too late for DePeyster to recall the raiding force that was already well into Ohio.
Captain Andrew Bradt commanded the company of Butler’s Rangers that headed the operation. Bradt was a nephew of John Butler, the regimental commander. Like most of the loyalist force under Butler, Bradt had been born and raised in upstate New York, near Schenectady. He has spent years leading raids with the Indians against settlers in the Ohio Valley.
According to some accounts, Simon Girty was also with the attackers. This seems unlikely since Girty was with the force that had just attacked Blue Licks and it seems unlikely he would have found his way back to this one in time to be part of the engagement. There are many accounts of Girty that are exaggerated since he became the face of the enemy in this western war. Still, it is possible that Girty had returned in time to join up with this group. It’s also possible that this was Simon’s brother George Girty who was with this group.
In any event the attackers arrived at the fort on the evening of September 11. The defenders had received warning of their approach and were already inside the fort. The attacking force consisted of around 350 loyalists and Indian warriors. In the fort were about 60 women and children, defended by about 40 local militia. Some sources say there were only about 20 defenders who were men of fighting age.
After arriving the British marched in front of the fort, waiving the British flag and demanding the fort’s surrender. The defenders refused. After sundown, the loyalists and Indians stormed the fort walls at least three times, only to be repulsed each time.
After the sun rose the following morning, the attackers kept their distance, but also continued to fire on the fort. The defenders returned small arms fire, as well as using their cannon.
There is one story from that day of fighting may be is rather suspect, but is worth mentioning. The fort garrison found itself running low on ammunition. The men had been firing almost continuously, while the women molded musket balls from melted lead.
Betty Zane, knew that her brother Ebenezer had extra powder in his home, 60 yards from the fort walls. Running there and back would make an easy target for the attackers. Betty volunteered, betting that they would not shoot at an unarmed woman. She just walked out of the main gate toward the house. The attackers stopped firing, stunned at the sight of a woman simply strolling out of the fort. At the house, she collected a small barrel of powder and began carrying it back to the fort. Seeing her with ammunition the attackers opened fire. Betty managed to dash back into the fort unharmed.
The firing resumed. That night, after dark, the attackers stormed the fort again, but were repulsed yet again. By the morning of the third day, Bradt was concerned that a relief force was on its way. He withdrew from the fort and retreated back into Ohio.
Fort Rice
While Bradt was done with his raid, some of the Indians still wanted a win. About 100 of the native warriors broke off and moved Northeast. They attacked a tiny outpost known as Fort Rice. This was a pretty small reinforced blockhouse owned by David Rice, that provided a defense for the three or four settler families that lived in the area that is today western Pennsylvania, between Wheeling and Pittsburgh.
The families were alerted to the approach and got inside the house before the Indians arrived. There were about 100 Indians while there were only six men inside the house, along with their families. The attack lasted most of the day. One of the defenders was killed. The attackers also killed and scalped one man and his son, who tried to get into the fort during the attack. A third man was wounded but managed to get into the fort.
Unable to overrun the fort, the Indians satisfied themselves with burning or looting the crops and livestock as well as several nearby buildings. They withdrew during the night.
The following day, the local militia assembled about 60 men to chase down the war party. However the natives withdrew quickly and were not found.
Return to Detroit
The loyalists and Indians spent some time among the Indian villages along the Sandusky River. By the middle of October, they met up with Caldwell and the men who had fought at Blue Licks. The combined force had a difficult time obtaining food. DePeyster reported that when they got back to Detroit, the men were emaciated from hunger as well as very sick.
Having already received word of the end of offensive operations, this would be the last raid from Detroit during the war.
American Response
Of course, the settlers were not willing to let the matter drop. Deadly raids like these required retaliation. For some time, the settlers in this region, which was part of Virginia at the time, complained that they were receiving no protection. The western commander, George Rogers Clark remained mostly around Louisville, which was too far away from them.
Benjamin Harrison who had become Governor of Virginia, at the end of 1781, called on Clark to do something, but could not provide any men or money to assist. Clark, like many officers, was pretty much bankrupt since he had been obtaining supplies on credit and getting nothing from the state to repay them.
Despite this lack of support, Clark planned another raid into Ohio. He coordinated with Continental General William Irvine at Fort Pitt. The plan was for Irvine to lead about 1200 Continentals and militia west into what is today central Ohio. Clark would lead about 1000 men north from Louisville toward the same area. The combined force would wreak havoc on the Indian villages there.
Clark had no money or credit left. He ended up trading 3200 acres of his own land in exchange for supplies for the expedition, which left Louisville on November 14. As Irvine prepared to leave Fort Pitt, he received orders to stand down in light of the peace treaty negotiations that were taking place in Europe. Irvine still kept up preparations for the attack in hopes that it would keep the Indians off guard as Clark’s force marched north. But in the end, the Continentals at Fort Pitt would not be a part of the expedition, leaving Clark's force on its own.
Clark’s Virginians reached the Shawnee village of Chillicothe, just south of modern day Columbus. They found that most of the Indians had fled in anticipation of his arrival. They managed to kill and scalp ten warriors, took a few more prisoners and freed two white prisoners who were being held by the Shawnee.
The Virginians also burned all the crops and villages that they found, leaving the tribes without any food or shelter for the winter. With that, they withdrew back to Kentucky.
Next week: we head east where fighting with loyalists continues, despite the war’s imminent end.
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Next Episode 322 LBI Massacre and the Doan Gang (Available July 28, 2024)
Previous Episode 318 Peace Negotiations
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Further Reading
Websites
William Caldwell: https://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/caldwell_william_1822_6E.html
Blue Lick’s Battle https://www.battlefields.org/learn/revolutionary-war/battles/blue-licks
Siege of Fort Henry: https://revolutionarywar.us/year-1782/siege-fort-henry
Rice Fort Historical Marker https://theclio.com/entry/115244
Rice Family and Rice’s Fort: http://genealogytrails.com/ind/crawford/connections_6.html
Free eBooks
(from archive.org unless noted)
Forbes-Lindsay, Charles Daniel Boone, Backwoodsman, Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co. 1908.
Grey, Zane Betty Zane, New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1903.
Withers, Alexander Chronicles of Border Warfare, Clarksburg, VA: Joseph Israel, 1831,
Books Worth Buying
(links to Amazon.com unless otherwise noted)*
Calloway, Colin G. The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities, Cambridge Univ. Press,
Calloway, Colin G. The Indian World of George Washington: The First President, the First Americans, and the Birth of the Nation, Oxford Univ. Press, 2018
Glickstein, Don After Yorktown: The Final Struggle for American Independence, Westholme Publishing, 2015.
Waller, George M. American Revolution in the West, Burnham, Inc. Publications, 1976.
* As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.
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